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A short history of global inequality: The past two centuries

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  • Milanovic, Branko

Abstract

Using social tables, we make an estimate of global inequality (inequality among world citizens) in early 19th century. We then show that the level and composition of global inequality have changed over the last two centuries. The level has increased reaching a high plateau around 1950s, and the main determinants of global inequality have become differences in mean country incomes rather than inequalities within nations. The inequality extraction ratio (the percentage of total inequality that was extracted by global elites) has remained surprisingly stable, at around 70% of the maximum global Gini, during the last 100years.

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  • Milanovic, Branko, 2011. "A short history of global inequality: The past two centuries," Explorations in Economic History, Elsevier, vol. 48(4), pages 494-506.
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:exehis:v:48:y:2011:i:4:p:494-506
    DOI: 10.1016/j.eeh.2011.05.001
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    1. Milanovic, Branko & Lindert, Peter & Williamson, Jeffrey, 2007. "Measuring Ancient Inequality," MPRA Paper 5388, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    2. Milanovic, Branko, 2009. "Global inequality recalculated : the effect of new 2005 PPP estimates on global inequality," Policy Research Working Paper Series 5061, The World Bank.
    3. Branko Milanovic & Peter H. Lindert & Jeffrey G. Williamson, 2011. "Pre‐Industrial Inequality," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 121(551), pages 255-272, March.
    4. Branko Milanovic, 2006. "An Estimate Of Average Income And Inequality In Byzantium Around Year 1000," Review of Income and Wealth, International Association for Research in Income and Wealth, vol. 52(3), pages 449-470, September.
    5. Prados De La Escosura, Leandro, 2008. "Inequality, poverty and the Kuznets curve in Spain, 1850–2000," European Review of Economic History, Cambridge University Press, vol. 12(3), pages 287-324, December.
    6. Modalsli, Jørgen, 2011. "Inequality and growth in the very long run: inferring inequality from data on social groups," Memorandum 11/2011, Oslo University, Department of Economics.
    7. George Deltas, 2003. "The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 85(1), pages 226-234, February.
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    1. > Economic History > Long-term Inequality and Mobility

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    3. María Gómez-León, 2015. "The Rise of the Middle Class, Brazil (1839-1950)," Working Papers 0091, European Historical Economics Society (EHES).
    4. Lomborg, Bjorn, 2020. "Welfare in the 21st century: Increasing development, reducing inequality, the impact of climate change, and the cost of climate policies," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 156(C).
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    6. Branko Milanovic, 2013. "Global Income Inequality in Numbers: in History and Now," Global Policy, London School of Economics and Political Science, vol. 4(2), pages 198-208, May.
    7. Jean-Louis Combes & Pascale Combes Motel, 2022. "Que nous apprend la littérature récente sur la « nature et les causes de la richesse des nations » ?," Mondes en développement, De Boeck Université, vol. 0(3), pages 289-313.
    8. Jørgen Modalsli, 2017. "Decomposing Global Inequality," Review of Income and Wealth, International Association for Research in Income and Wealth, vol. 63(3), pages 445-463, September.
    9. Francisco J. Beltran Tapia & Julio Martinez-Galarrage, 2015. "Inequality and poverty in a developing economy: Evidence from regional data (Spain, 1860-1930)," Working Papers 0078, European Historical Economics Society (EHES).
    10. Robert J. Sonora, 2022. "A panel analysis of income inequality and energy use," Contemporary Economic Policy, Western Economic Association International, vol. 40(1), pages 83-97, January.
    11. Facundo Alvaredo & Leonardo Gasparini, 2013. "Recent Trends in Inequality and Poverty in Developing Countries," CEDLAS, Working Papers 0151, CEDLAS, Universidad Nacional de La Plata.
    12. Malanima, Paolo, 2025. "Before modern growth. Italy’s GDP 1660-1913," Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Elsevier, vol. 75(C), pages 147-162.
    13. Stefano Filauro & Flaviana Palmisano & Vito Peragine, 2023. "The Evolution of Inequality of Opportunity in Europe," Working Papers 644, ECINEQ, Society for the Study of Economic Inequality.
    14. Gómez León, María, 2015. "The rise of the middle class : Brazil (1839-1950)," IFCS - Working Papers in Economic History.WH wp15-09, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. Instituto Figuerola.
    15. Malanima, Paolo, 2024. "International inequality in energy use and CO2 emissions (1820–2020)," Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 233-244.
    16. Mwabukojo, Edson, 2019. "Mapping the Development Progress in Tanzania since Independence," MPRA Paper 97534, University Library of Munich, Germany, revised 11 Dec 2019.
    17. Milanovic, Branko, 2024. "The three eras of global inequality, 1820–2020 with the focus on the past thirty years," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 177(C).
    18. Pasquale Tridico, 2015. "The Rise Of Income Inequality In Oecd Countries," Departmental Working Papers of Economics - University 'Roma Tre' 0201, Department of Economics - University Roma Tre.
    19. Salvador Pueyo, 2014. "Ecological Econophysics for Degrowth," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 6(6), pages 1-53, May.
    20. Branko Milanovic, 2012. "Global Inequality: From Class to Location, from Proletarians to Migrants," Global Policy, London School of Economics and Political Science, vol. 3(2), pages 125-134, May.
    21. Milanovic, Branko, 2012. "Global income inequality by the numbers : in history and now --an overview--," Policy Research Working Paper Series 6259, The World Bank.

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