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Heterogeneous Mental Health Development During the COVID-19 Pandemic in the United Kingdom

Author

Listed:
  • Lea Ellwardt

    (Institute of Sociology and Social Psychology, University of Cologne, Germany)

  • Patrick Präg

    (CREST, CNRS, École polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris)

Abstract

Aim: The COVID-19 pandemic and the mitigation measures by governments have upended the economic and social lives of many, leading to widespread psychological distress. However, how distress developed during the pandemic and who was most affected is poorly understood. We explore heterogeneity in trajectories of psychological distress during the first six months of the pandemic in the United Kingdom and relate this heterogeneity to socio-demographic and health factors. Subjects and Methods: We analyze six waves of longitudinal, nationally representative survey data from the UK Household Longitudinal Study (N = 15,218), covering the first lockdown in 2020. First, latent class mixture modelling (LCCM) is used to identify trajectories of psychological distress. Second, associations of the trajectories with covariates are tested with multinomial logistic regressions. Results: We find four different trajectories of distress: continuously low, continuously moderate, temporarily elevated, and continuously elevated distress. One-fifth of the population experienced severely elevated risks of distress. Long-term exposure was highest among younger people, women, those who lost income, and those with previous health conditions or COVID-19 symptoms. Conclusion: Given the threat of persistent stress on health, policy measures should be sensitized to the unintended yet far-reaching consequences of non-pharmaceutical interventions.

Suggested Citation

  • Lea Ellwardt & Patrick Präg, 2021. "Heterogeneous Mental Health Development During the COVID-19 Pandemic in the United Kingdom," Working Papers 2021-07, Center for Research in Economics and Statistics.
    • Handle: RePEc:crs:wpaper:2021-07
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. James Banks & Xiaowei Xu, 2020. "The Mental Health Effects of the First Two Months of Lockdown during the COVID‐19 Pandemic in the UK," Fiscal Studies, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 41(3), pages 685-708, September.
    2. Dirk Witteveen & Eva Velthorst, 2020. "Economic hardship and mental health complaints during COVID-19," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 117(44), pages 27277-27284, November.
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    1. Duarte Neves, Henrique & Asaria, Miqdad & Stabile, Mark, 2024. "Young, Muslim and poor: The persistent impacts of the pandemic on mental health in the UK," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 353(C).
    2. Neugebauer, Martin & Patzina, Alexander & Dietrich, Hans & Sandner, Malte, 2023. "Two Pandemic Years Greatly Reduced Young People's Life Satisfaction: Evidence from a Comparison with Pre-COVID-19 Panel Data," IZA Discussion Papers 16636, IZA Network @ LISER.
    3. Nefes, Türkay Salim & Präg, Patrick & Romero-Reche, Alejandro & Pereira-Puga, Manuel, 2023. "Believing in conspiracy theories in Spain during the COVID-19 pandemic: Drivers and public health implications," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 336(C).
    4. Jackson, Sarah E. & Cox, Sharon & Holmes, John & Angus, Colin & Robson, Deborah & Brose, Leonie & Brown, Jamie, 2025. "Paying the price: Financial hardship and its association with psychological distress among different population groups in the midst of Great Britain's cost-of-living crisis," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 364(C).
    5. Kate Dotsikas & Liam Crosby & Anne McMunn & David Osborn & Kate Walters & Jennifer Dykxhoorn, 2023. "The gender dimensions of mental health during the Covid-19 pandemic: A path analysis," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 18(5), pages 1-14, May.

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