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The Economic Cost of Gender Gaps in Effective Labor: Africa's Missing Growth Reserve

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  • Amarakoon Bandara

Abstract

This study analyzes the impact of the gender gap in effective labor - defined as the combined effect of the gender gaps in labor force participation and education - on economic output per worker. The results indicate that the gender gap in effective labor has a negative effect on the economic output per worker in African countries. A 1 percent increase in the gender gap in effective labor leads to a reduction in output per worker by 0.43-0.49 percent in Africa overall, 0.29-0.50 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa, and 0.26-0.32 percent in a wider group of countries from Africa and Asia. The total annual economic losses due to gender gaps in effective labor could be as high as US$255 billion for the African region. Results confirm that Africa is missing its full growth potential because a sizeable portion of its growth reserve - women - is not fully utilized.

Suggested Citation

  • Amarakoon Bandara, 2015. "The Economic Cost of Gender Gaps in Effective Labor: Africa's Missing Growth Reserve," Feminist Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 21(2), pages 162-186, April.
    • Handle: RePEc:taf:femeco:v:21:y:2015:i:2:p:162-186
    DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2014.986153
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    Cited by:

    1. Hyland,Marie Caitriona & Islam,Asif Mohammed & Muzi,Silvia, 2020. "Firms' Discriminatory Behavior, and Women's Employment in the Democratic Republic of Congo," Policy Research Working Paper Series 9224, The World Bank.
    2. repec:rac:ecchap:2017-12 is not listed on IDEAS
    3. Baroki, Robert & Joshi, Christian & Maisonnave, Hélène & Mariam, Anastasie Bulumba, 2021. "Impact of pro-gender public policies in the agricultural sectors on women's employment in a context of economic dependence on natural resources: A case study of the DRC," 2021 Conference, August 17-31, 2021, Virtual 315114, International Association of Agricultural Economists.
    4. Nicholas Ngepah & Charles Shaaba Saba & Cleide L.M. Tinga, 2024. "Gender Inequality and Economic Growth in Developing Countries," Economia Internazionale / International Economics, Camera di Commercio Industria Artigianato Agricoltura di Genova, vol. 77(3), pages 371-416.
    5. Nunes, Débora & Arora, Diksha & Braunstein, Elissa, 2025. "Real effective exchange rate shocks and job quality by gender in Latin America," Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Elsevier, vol. 74(C), pages 262-273.
    6. Kareem, Fatima Olanike, 2017. "European Union’s SPS and TBT Measures, Gender Specific Obstacles and Agricultural Employment," EconStor Preprints 171726, ZBW - Leibniz Information Centre for Economics.
    7. Mohanad Ismael & AbedAlmonim Saleh, 2026. "The Impact of Public Debt on Income Inequality," Economic Alternatives, University of National and World Economy, Sofia, Bulgaria, issue 2, pages 586-610, June.
    8. Habiba Mohammedbello Umar & Mehdi Seraj & Huseyin Ozdeser, 2025. "Female Labour Participation in Sub-Saharan African: The Role of Institutional Quality," Journal of the Knowledge Economy, Springer;Portland International Center for Management of Engineering and Technology (PICMET), vol. 16(6), pages 18583-18611, December.
    9. Laurent-Fabrice Ambassa & Honoré Bidiasse, 2025. "Gender Norms and Female Labor Supply in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Dynamic Panel Quantile Regression Analysis," Journal of the Knowledge Economy, Springer;Portland International Center for Management of Engineering and Technology (PICMET), vol. 16(2), pages 9512-9535, June.
    10. Fatima Olanike Kareem & Olayinka Idowu Kareem, 2021. "Employment Responses to EU Food Safety Regulations: A Gendered Perspective," The European Journal of Development Research, Palgrave Macmillan;European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes (EADI), vol. 33(6), pages 1899-1929, December.
    11. Haroon Ur Rashid Khan & Anwar Khan & Khalid Zaman & Agha Amad Nabi & Sanil S. Hishan & Talat Islam, 2017. "Gender discrimination in education, health, and labour market: a voice for equality," Quality & Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, Springer, vol. 51(5), pages 2245-2266, September.
    12. Mukherjee, Shantanu & Lusigi, Angela & Kamwendo, Eunice & Bonini, Astra, "undated". "Income Inequality Trends in sub-Saharan Africa: Divergence, determinants and consequences: Inequality, Gender and Human Development in Africa," UNDP Africa Reports 267647, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
    13. UNDP Regional Bureau for Africa & Shantanu Mukherjee & Angela Lusigi & Eunice Kamwendo & Astra Bonini, "undated". "Inequality, Gender and Human Development in Africa," UNDP Africa Policy Notes 2017-12, United Nations Development Programme, Regional Bureau for Africa.
    14. Margaret Chitiga-Mabugu & Martin Henseler & Helene Maisonnave & Ramos Mabugu, 2023. "Climate Change and Women — Impacts and Adaptation," Post-Print hal-05361698, HAL.
    15. Audrey VERDIER-CHOUCHANE, 2016. "Women In Inclusive Development: An Overview," Region et Developpement, Region et Developpement, LEAD, Universite du Sud - Toulon Var, vol. 44, pages 43-60.

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