IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jsusta/v17y2025i13p5862-d1687452.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Comprehensive Assessment and Mitigation of Indoor Air Quality in a Commercial Retail Building in Saudi Arabia

Author

Listed:
  • Wael S. Al-Rashed

    (Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Tabuk, P.O. Box 741, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia)

  • Abderrahim Lakhouit

    (Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Tabuk, P.O. Box 741, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia)

Abstract

The acceleration of industrialization and urbanization worldwide has dramatically improved living standards but has also introduced serious environmental and public health challenges. One of the most critical challenges is air pollution, particularly indoors, where individuals typically spend over 90% of their time. Ensuring good Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is essential, especially in heavily frequented public spaces such as shopping malls. This study focuses on assessing IAQ in a large shopping mall located in Tabuk, Saudi Arabia, covering retail zones as well as an attached underground parking area. Monitoring is conducted over a continuous two-month period using calibrated instruments placed at representative locations to capture variations in pollutant levels. The investigation targets key contaminants, including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ), total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs), and formaldehyde (HCHO). The data are analyzed and compared against international and national guidelines, including World Health Organization (WHO) standards and Saudi environmental regulations. The results show that concentrations of CO, CO 2 , and PM 2.5 in the shopping mall are generally within acceptable limits, with values ranging from approximately 7 to 15 ppm, suggesting that ventilation systems are effective in most areas. However, the study identifies high levels of TVOCs and HCHO, particularly in zones characterized by poor ventilation and high human occupancy. Peak concentrations reach 1.48 mg/m 3 for TVOCs and 1.43 mg/m 3 for HCHO, exceeding recommended exposure thresholds. These findings emphasize the urgent need for enhancing ventilation designs, prioritizing the use of low-emission materials, and establishing continuous air quality monitoring protocols within commercial buildings. Improving IAQ is not only crucial for protecting public health but also for enhancing occupant comfort, satisfaction, and overall building sustainability. This study offers practical recommendations to policymakers, building managers, and designers striving to create healthier indoor environments in rapidly expanding urban centers.

Suggested Citation

  • Wael S. Al-Rashed & Abderrahim Lakhouit, 2025. "Comprehensive Assessment and Mitigation of Indoor Air Quality in a Commercial Retail Building in Saudi Arabia," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(13), pages 1-19, June.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:13:p:5862-:d:1687452
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/17/13/5862/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/17/13/5862/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Ismail Essamlali & Hasna Nhaila & Mohamed El Khaili, 2024. "Supervised Machine Learning Approaches for Predicting Key Pollutants and for the Sustainable Enhancement of Urban Air Quality: A Systematic Review," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 16(3), pages 1-26, January.
    2. Yao Liu & Jiannan Wu & Hongtao Yi & Jing Wen, 2021. "Under what conditions do governments collaborate? A qualitative comparative analysis of air pollution control in China," Public Management Review, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 23(11), pages 1664-1682, November.
    3. Höök, Mikael & Tang, Xu, 2013. "Depletion of fossil fuels and anthropogenic climate change—A review," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 52(C), pages 797-809.
    4. Mehzabeen Mannan & Sami G. Al-Ghamdi, 2021. "Indoor Air Quality in Buildings: A Comprehensive Review on the Factors Influencing Air Pollution in Residential and Commercial Structure," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(6), pages 1-25, March.
    5. Nilofar Asim & Marzieh Badiei & Masita Mohammad & Halim Razali & Armin Rajabi & Lim Chin Haw & Mariyam Jameelah Ghazali, 2022. "Sustainability of Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) Systems in Buildings—An Overview," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(2), pages 1-16, January.
    6. Sarah H. Widder & Liv Haselbach, 2017. "Relationship among Concentrations of Indoor Air Contaminants, Their Sources, and Different Mitigation Strategies on Indoor Air Quality," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 9(7), pages 1-16, June.
    7. Alessio Mastrucci & Bas Ruijven & Edward Byers & Miguel Poblete-Cazenave & Shonali Pachauri, 2021. "Global scenarios of residential heating and cooling energy demand and CO2 emissions," Climatic Change, Springer, vol. 168(3), pages 1-26, October.
    8. Sotiris Vardoulakis & Evanthia Giagloglou & Susanne Steinle & Alice Davis & Anne Sleeuwenhoek & Karen S. Galea & Ken Dixon & Joanne O. Crawford, 2020. "Indoor Exposure to Selected Air Pollutants in the Home Environment: A Systematic Review," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(23), pages 1-24, December.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Melania Maria Serafini & Ambra Maddalon & Martina Iulini & Valentina Galbiati, 2022. "Air Pollution: Possible Interaction between the Immune and Nervous System?," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(23), pages 1-24, November.
    2. Ishanka Perera & Kasun Hewage & Anber Rana & Rehan Sadiq, 2025. "Combining Energy Performance and Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) in Buildings: A Systematic Review on Common IEQ Guidelines and Energy Codes in North America," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(7), pages 1-30, March.
    3. Burton, N.A. & Padilla, R.V. & Rose, A. & Habibullah, H., 2021. "Increasing the efficiency of hydrogen production from solar powered water electrolysis," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 135(C).
    4. Ritter, Hendrik & Zimmermann, Karl, 2019. "Cap-and-Trade Policy vs. Carbon Taxation: Of Leakage and Linkage," EconStor Preprints 197796, ZBW - Leibniz Information Centre for Economics.
    5. Brahma, Antara & Saikia, Kangkana & Hiloidhari, Moonmoon & Baruah, D.C., 2016. "GIS based planning of a biomethanation power plant in Assam, India," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 596-608.
    6. Ahmed, Saeed & Mahmood, Anzar & Hasan, Ahmad & Sidhu, Guftaar Ahmad Sardar & Butt, Muhammad Fasih Uddin, 2016. "A comparative review of China, India and Pakistan renewable energy sectors and sharing opportunities," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 57(C), pages 216-225.
    7. Anna Borawska & Mariusz Borawski & Małgorzata Łatuszyńska, 2022. "Effectiveness of Electricity-Saving Communication Campaigns: Neurophysiological Approach," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(4), pages 1-19, February.
    8. Jing Han Siow & Muhammad Roil Bilad & Wahyu Caesarendra & Jia Jia Leam & Mohammad Azmi Bustam & Nonni Soraya Sambudi & Yusuf Wibisono & Teuku Meurah Indra Mahlia, 2021. "Progress in Development of Nanostructured Manganese Oxide as Catalyst for Oxygen Reduction and Evolution Reaction," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(19), pages 1-16, October.
    9. Di Paola, Nadia & Chari, Simos & Iannacci, Federico & Kraus, Sascha, 2025. "Configurational theory in business and management research: Status quo and guidelines for the application of qualitative comparative analysis (QCA)," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 211(C).
    10. Sardarabadi, Mohammad & Hosseinzadeh, Mohammad & Kazemian, Arash & Passandideh-Fard, Mohammad, 2017. "Experimental investigation of the effects of using metal-oxides/water nanofluids on a photovoltaic thermal system (PVT) from energy and exergy viewpoints," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 138(C), pages 682-695.
    11. Pierre Lemire & Sofia Temam & Sarah Lyon-Caen & Catherine Quinot & Etienne Sévin & Sophie Remacle & Karine Supernant & Rémy Slama & Orianne Dumas & Valérie Siroux & Nicole Le Moual & the SEPAGES Study, 2021. "Comparison of a Barcode-Based Smartphone Application to a Questionnaire to Assess the Use of Cleaning Products at Home and Their Association with Asthma Symptoms," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(7), pages 1-13, March.
    12. Fanta Barry & Marie Sawadogo & Maïmouna Bologo (Traoré) & Igor W. K. Ouédraogo & Thomas Dogot, 2021. "Key Barriers to the Adoption of Biomass Gasification in Burkina Faso," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(13), pages 1-14, June.
    13. Ayhan, Vezir & Ece, Yılmaz Mert, 2020. "New application to reduce NOx emissions of diesel engines: Electronically controlled direct water injection at compression stroke," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 260(C).
    14. Annette M. Krais & Julie Y. Essig & Louise Gren & Carolina Vogs & Eva Assarsson & Katrin Dierschke & Jörn Nielsen & Bo Strandberg & Joakim Pagels & Karin Broberg & Christian H. Lindh & Anders Gudmunds, 2021. "Biomarkers after Controlled Inhalation Exposure to Exhaust from Hydrogenated Vegetable Oil (HVO)," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(12), pages 1-15, June.
    15. Gómez, Sergio Yesid & Hotza, Dachamir, 2016. "Current developments in reversible solid oxide fuel cells," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 61(C), pages 155-174.
    16. Mengting Liao & Yi Xiao & Shenxin Li & Juan Su & Ji Li & Bin Zou & Xiang Chen & Minxue Shen, 2022. "Synergistic Effects between Ambient Air Pollution and Second-Hand Smoke on Inflammatory Skin Diseases in Chinese Adolescents," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(16), pages 1-12, August.
    17. Bruno, Arthur M. & Chagas, Carlos Alberto & Souza, Mariana M.V.M. & Manfro, Robinson L., 2018. "Lactic acid production from glycerol in alkaline medium using Pt-based catalysts in continuous flow reaction system," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 118(C), pages 160-171.
    18. Azim Baibagyssov & Niels Thevs & Sabir Nurtazin & Rainer Waldhardt & Volker Beckmann & Ruslan Salmurzauly, 2020. "Biomass Resources of Phragmites australis in Kazakhstan: Historical Developments, Utilization, and Prospects," Resources, MDPI, vol. 9(6), pages 1-25, June.
    19. Mohammadreza Ebrahimnataj Tiji & Jasim M. Mahdi & Hayder I. Mohammed & Hasan Sh. Majdi & Abbas Ebrahimi & Rohollah Babaei Mahani & Pouyan Talebizadehsardari & Wahiba Yaïci, 2021. "Natural Convection Effect on Solidification Enhancement in a Multi-Tube Latent Heat Storage System: Effect of Tubes’ Arrangement," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(22), pages 1-23, November.
    20. Di Dong & Rong Ran & Bingsheng Liu & Jinfeng Zhang & Chengcheng Song & Jing Wang, 2024. "Recentralization and the long‐lasting effect of campaign‐style enforcement: From the perspective of authority allocation," Review of Policy Research, Policy Studies Organization, vol. 41(1), pages 239-275, January.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:13:p:5862-:d:1687452. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.