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Long-Term Exposure to PM 2.5 , Facemask Mandates, Stay Home Orders and COVID-19 Incidence in the United States

Author

Listed:
  • Fang Fang

    (Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Lina Mu

    (Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA)

  • Yifang Zhu

    (Department of Environmental Health Science, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
    Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Jianyu Rao

    (Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
    Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Jody Heymann

    (WORLD Policy Analysis Center, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Zuo-Feng Zhang

    (Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
    Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
    Center for Human Nutrition, Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

Abstract

Long-term PM 2.5 exposure might predispose populations to SARS-CoV-2 infection and intervention policies might interrupt SARS-CoV-2 transmission and reduce the risk of COVID-19. We conducted an ecologic study across the United States, using county-level COVID-19 incidence up to 12 September 2020, to represent the first two surges in the U.S., annual average of PM 2.5 between 2000 and 2016 and state-level facemask mandates and stay home orders. We fit negative binomial models to assess COVID-19 incidence in association with PM 2.5 and policies. Stratified analyses by facemask policy and stay home policy were also performed. Each 1-µg/m 3 increase in annual average concentration of PM 2.5 exposure was associated with 7.56% (95% CI: 3.76%, 11.49%) increase in COVID-19 risk. Facemask mandates and stay home policies were inversely associated with COVID-19 with adjusted RRs of 0.8466 (95% CI: 0.7598, 0.9432) and 0.9193 (95% CI: 0.8021, 1.0537), respectively. The associations between PM 2.5 and COVID-19 were consistent among counties with or without preventive policies. Our study added evidence that long-term PM 2.5 exposure increased the risk of COVID-19 during each surge and cumulatively as of 12 September 2020, in the United States. Although both state-level implementation of facemask mandates and stay home orders were effective in preventing the spread of COVID-19, no clear effect modification was observed regarding long-term exposure to PM 2.5 on the risk of COVID-19.

Suggested Citation

  • Fang Fang & Lina Mu & Yifang Zhu & Jianyu Rao & Jody Heymann & Zuo-Feng Zhang, 2021. "Long-Term Exposure to PM 2.5 , Facemask Mandates, Stay Home Orders and COVID-19 Incidence in the United States," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(12), pages 1-12, June.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:18:y:2021:i:12:p:6274-:d:572304
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Matthew A. Cole & Ceren Ozgen & Eric Strobl, 2020. "Air Pollution Exposure and Covid-19 in Dutch Municipalities," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 76(4), pages 581-610, August.
    2. Matthew A Cole & Ceren Ozgen & Eric Strobl, 2020. "Air Pollution Exposure and Covid-19," Discussion Papers 20-13, Department of Economics, University of Birmingham.
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    Cited by:

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