Climate change and the water–food–energy nexus: A comprehensive review of sustainability challenges and innovations

Climate change is intensifying interdependencies across water, food, and energy systems, exposing structural vulnerabilities and widening sustainability gaps worldwide. This review synthesises 273 peer-reviewed publications (2015–2024) using an integrated bibliometric, conceptual, and content-analysis approach to assess the evolution of the Water–Food–Energy Nexus (WFEN). Through Bibliometrix and VOSviewer analyses, the study maps publication trends, identifies influential contributors, and traces the emergence of interdisciplinary frameworks shaping climate-adaptive nexus strategies. Two complementary pillars dominate contemporary WFEN scholarship. The first is the Environmental Livelihood Security (ELS) framework, which advances a governance-oriented model centered on equity, vulnerability reduction, institutional coherence, and livelihood resilience. The second is Agrivoltaic (AV) systems, which, by contrast, represent a rapidly growing class of climate-adaptive technologies that co-produce renewable energy, enhance water-use efficiency (WUE), stabilise crop yields, and buffer microclimates. By integrating these pillars, this review demonstrates how governance structures (ELS) and technological innovations (AV) can function as a unified socio-technical system supporting climate-resilient WFEN transitions. Findings reveal substantial geographic asymmetries, with research concentrated in high-income regions, while data and governance gaps persist in climate-vulnerable areas. The accelerating role of digitalisation, AI-assisted modelling, IoT-enabled monitoring, and hybrid simulation tools signals a transition toward more adaptive, data-driven WFEN management. The review contributes a consolidated ELS + AV framework that bridges social legitimacy and technological capability, aligning WFEN governance with SDGs 2, 6, 7, and 13. A forward-looking agenda is proposed, emphasizing region-specific empirical studies, inclusive governance mechanisms, and advanced modelling approaches to support equitable and climate-adaptive WFEN systems.