A two-layer programming for highway heavy-duty truck battery swapping stations

Battery-swapping heavy-duty trucks (HDTs) have emerged as a significant solution for freight electrification. However, as battery-swapping HDTs evolve from short-haul to long-haul operations, there remains a lack of comprehensive research addressing the joint optimization of station siting and in-station resource allocation along major highway corridors. This study develops a bi-level planning model for the techno-economic analysis of battery-swapping stations aimed at minimizing construction costs while maximizing service demand to achieve an optimal balance between investment efficiency and service quality. Using a highway case study in China, we identify vehicle arrival frequency and battery capacity as critical factors influencing per-unit transport costs. In single-station scenarios, smaller-capacity batteries (e.g., 282 kWh) result in higher comprehensive ton-kilometer costs than larger-capacity batteries at low arrival frequencies. However, as vehicle arrival frequency increases above 2 vehicles per hour, smaller-capacity batteries achieve cost reductions that surpass those of larger-capacity batteries. At the corridor level, both arrival frequency and battery capacity significantly impact station layout, showing trends consistent with single-station analysis. In this highway case, the 421 kWh battery configuration better meets demand. This study provides practical insights for cost-effective and scalable deployment of battery-swapping infrastructure for HDTs on major highways.