Male labor scarcity, technology adoption and female labor market integration: A quantitative and qualitative study of Portugal

This paper presents new evidence that male labor scarcity led to an increased female presence in physically demanding occupations. We employ a two-part analytical approach. First, using a quasi-experimental empirical strategy, we show that male scarcity led to an increased female presence in male-dominated and physically demanding occupations. We then present a case study of early female labor force integration, facilitated by technological innovation, that challenged conservative social norms on gender roles. At the beginning of the 1960s, the labor force in the salt ponds in Alcochete, Portugal, was exclusively male. Labor shortages over the decade led employers to recruit females. This trend favored an early technological improvement under a potentially virtuous circle. A wheelbarrow to carry the salt spread from the mid-1960s onward to the rest of the region. Our findings contribute to the literature on labor market dynamics and endogenous technology adoption.