Linking the energy-emissions-water-food security nexus to the economic return of wheat production in Iran: A nutritional LCA approach

Wheat is a strategic crop of global importance, with a primary function of supplying calories and protein to meet human nutritional needs. In this regard, it is crucial to study the sustainability and the economic viability of this crop in order to improve food security. The central objective of this study is to examine the nexus between water, energy, emissions, food security and economic performance in wheat production (irrigated versus rainfed) in Iran. To this end, data from 96 farms in Gonbad-e Kavus (Golestan Province), collected via structured questionnaires and face-to-face interviews, were analyzed using a nutritional Life Cycle Assessment approach. An innovative set of eco-efficiency indicators was also applied to assess the energy–emissions–water–food security (EEWFs) nexus, explicitly integrating the economic and nutritional dimensions of wheat production. The analysis revealed substantial trade-offs among the various dimensions examined. Irrigated wheat was more profitable (24 % higher net margin per hectare) with a 21 % higher yield (4990 vs. 4109 kg/ha). However, this system increased non-renewable energy consumption by 55 % and tripled the water footprint (0.88 vs 0.29 m3/kg) (though it did not significantly raise the carbon footprint). Conversely, rainfed wheat showed higher resource efficiency, producing a threefold higher net margin per m3 of water used. By combining nutritional value with environmental productivity criteria, this study provides new insights and offers practical implications for technical, political, and economic planning in sustainable wheat production.