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Total Work, Gender and Social Norms

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Author Info
Burda, Michael C
Hamermesh, Daniel S
Weil, Philippe

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Abstract

Using time-diary data from 25 countries, we demonstrate that there is a negative relationship between real GDP per capita and the female-male difference in total work time per day—the sum of work for pay and work at home. In rich northern countries on four continents there is no difference—men and women do the same amount of total work. This latter fact has been presented before by several sociologists for a few rich countries; but our survey results show that labour economists, macroeconomists, the general public and sociologists are unaware of it and instead believe that women perform more total work. The facts do not arise from gender differences in the price of time (as measured by market wages), as women’s total work is further below men’s where their relative wages are lower. Additional tests using U.S. and German data show that they do not arise from differences in marital bargaining, as gender equality is not associated with marital status; nor do they stem from family norms, since most of the variance in the gender total work difference is due to within-couple differences. We offer a theory of social norms to explain the facts. The social-norm explanation is better able to account for within-education group and within-region gender differences in total work being smaller than inter-group differences. It is consistent with evidence using the World Values Surveys that female total work is relatively greater than men’s where both men and women believe that scarce jobs should be offered to men first.

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Paper provided by C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers in its series CEPR Discussion Papers with number 6232.

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Date of creation: Mar 2007
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Handle: RePEc:cpr:ceprdp:6232

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Related research
Keywords: gender differences household production paid work time use

Other versions of this item:

Find related papers by JEL classification:
D13 - Microeconomics - - Household Behavior - - - Household Production and Intrahouse Allocation
J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
J22 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demand and Supply of Labor - - - Time Allocation and Labor Supply

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  1. Papers and articles using the American Time Use Survey (ATUS)
References listed on IDEAS
Please report citation or reference errors to , or , if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your RePEc Author Service profile, click on "citations" and make appropriate adjustments.:
  1. Daniel S. Hamermesh, 2007. "Time to Eat: Household Production under Increasing Income Inequality," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, American Agricultural Economics Association, vol. 89(4), pages 852-863, November. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  2. Rachel Ngai & Christopher Pissarides, 2006. "Trends in Hours and Economic Growth," 2006 Meeting Papers 56, Society for Economic Dynamics.
    Other versions:
  3. Kandori, Michihiro, 1992. "Social Norms and Community Enforcement," Review of Economic Studies, Blackwell Publishing, vol. 59(1), pages 63-80, January. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  4. Elster, Jon, 1989. "Social Norms and Economic Theory," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 3(4), pages 99-117, Fall. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  5. Mark Aguiar & Erik Hurst, 2007. "Measuring Trends in Leisure: The Allocation of Time over Five Decades," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, MIT Press, vol. 122(3), pages 969-1006, 08. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  6. Lindbeck, Assar, 1997. "Incentives and Social Norms in Household Behavior," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 87(2), pages 370-77, May. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  7. Haddad, Lawrence & Brown, Lynn R. & Richter, Andrea & Smith, Lisa, 1995. "The gender dimensions of economic adjustment policies: Potential interactions and evidence to date," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 23(6), pages 881-896, June. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  8. Nicole M Fortin, 2005. "Gender Role Attitudes and the Labour-market Outcomes of Women across OECD Countries," Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Oxford University Press, vol. 21(3), pages 416-438, Autumn.
  9. Kooreman, Peter & Kapteyn, Arie, 1987. "A Disaggregated Analysis of the Allocation of Time within the Household," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 95(2), pages 223-49, April. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  10. Matthias Doepke & Michèle Tertilt, 2008. "Women's Liberation: What's in It for Men?," NBER Working Papers 13919, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  11. Akerlof, George A, 1980. "A Theory of Social Custom, of Which Unemployment May be One Consequence," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, MIT Press, vol. 94(4), pages 749-75, June. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  12. Gronau, Reuben, 1980. "Home Production-A Forgotten Industry," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 62(3), pages 408-16, August. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  13. Young, H Peyton, 1996. "The Economics of Convention," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 10(2), pages 105-22, Spring. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  14. Cole, Harold L & Mailath, George J & Postlewaite, Andrew, 1992. "Social Norms, Savings Behavior, and Growth," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 100(6), pages 1092-1125, December. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  15. McElroy, Marjorie B & Horney, Mary Jean, 1981. "Nash-Bargained Household Decisions: Toward a Generalization of the Theory of Demand," International Economic Review, Department of Economics, University of Pennsylvania and Osaka University Institute of Social and Economic Research Association, vol. 22(2), pages 333-49, June. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  16. Dan Devroye & Richard B. Freeman, 2001. "Does Inequality in Skills Explain Inequality in Earnings Across Advanced Countries?," NBER Working Papers 8140, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  17. Biddle, Jeff E & Hamermesh, Daniel S, 1990. "Sleep and the Allocation of Time," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 98(5), pages 922-43, October. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  18. Lundberg, Shelly & Pollak, Robert A, 1996. "Bargaining and Distribution in Marriage," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 10(4), pages 139-58, Fall. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
Full references

Cited by:
(explanations, Please report citation or reference errors to , or , if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your RePEc Author Service profile, click on "citations" and make appropriate adjustments.)

  1. Alberto Alesina & Paola Giuliano, 2007. "The Power of the Family," IZA Discussion Papers 2750, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  2. Alison L. Booth & Jan C. van Ours, 2007. "Job Satisfaction and Family Happiness: The Part-time Work Puzzle," Department of Economics - Working Papers Series 1000, The University of Melbourne. [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  3. Daniel S. Hamermesh, 2007. "Fun with Matched Firm-Employee Data: Progress and Road Maps," IZA Discussion Papers 2580, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). [Downloadable!]
  4. Madalozzo, Regina & Martins, Sergio Ricardo & Shiratori, Ludmila, 2008. "Participação no Mercado de Trabalho e no Trabalho Doméstico: Homens e Mulheres têm Condições Iguais?," Ibmec Working Papers wpe_116, Ibmec Working Paper, Ibmec São Paulo. [Downloadable!]
  5. Doepke, Matthias & Tertilt, Michèle, 2008. "Women’s Liberation: What’s in It for Men?," IZA Discussion Papers 3421, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  6. repec:ese:iserwp: is not listed on IDEAS
  7. Booth, A.L. & Ours, J.C. van, 2007. "Job Satisfaction And Family Happiness: The Part-Time Work Problem," Discussion Paper 2007-69, Tilburg University, Center for Economic Research. [Downloadable!]
  8. Luigi Bonatti, 2007. "Evolution of preferences and cross-country differences in time devoted to market work," Department of Economics Working Papers 0719, Department of Economics, University of Trento, Italia. [Downloadable!]
  9. Zaiceva, Anzelika & Zimmermann, Klaus F, 2007. "Children, Kitchen, Church: Does Ethnicity Matter?," CEPR Discussion Papers 6491, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
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