IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/spr/lsprsc/v18y2025i1d10.1007_s12076-025-00411-4.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

An augmented fourier ARDL analysis of CO2 emission determinants in Spain: the role of growth, innovation, and trade

Author

Listed:
  • Irina Georgescu

    (Bucharest University of Economic Studies)

  • Jani Kinnunen

    (Åbo Akademi University)

Abstract

This study employs the Fourier-augmented ARDL (FARDL) model to explore the determinants of CO2 emissions in Spain over the period 1990–2023. Main variables include GDP per capita, renewable energy consumption (RENC), patent applications (PA), and trade openness (TO). The long-run results indicate that a 1% increase in GDP leads to a 0.35% rise in CO2 emissions, while a 1% increase in RENC reduces emissions by 0.56%. PA contribute to a 0.17% increase in emissions, and TO increases emissions by 0.26%. The short-run analysis shows that a 1% rise in RENC reduces emissions by 0.40%, while PA reduces emissions by 0.16%. In contrast, TO increases emissions by 0.27%. The error correction term of − 0.836 confirms a rapid adjustment toward equilibrium. The findings emphasize the need for renewable energy investment, green innovation policies, and sustainable trade practices to support Spain’s carbon neutrality goals.

Suggested Citation

  • Irina Georgescu & Jani Kinnunen, 2025. "An augmented fourier ARDL analysis of CO2 emission determinants in Spain: the role of growth, innovation, and trade," Letters in Spatial and Resource Sciences, Springer, vol. 18(1), pages 1-22, December.
  • Handle: RePEc:spr:lsprsc:v:18:y:2025:i:1:d:10.1007_s12076-025-00411-4
    DOI: 10.1007/s12076-025-00411-4
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12076-025-00411-4
    File Function: Abstract
    Download Restriction: Access to the full text of the articles in this series is restricted.

    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1007/s12076-025-00411-4?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Sephton, Peter & Mann, Janelle, 2013. "Further evidence of an Environmental Kuznets Curve in Spain," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 36(C), pages 177-181.
    2. Irina Georgescu & Jani Kinnunen, 2024. "Dynamic interactions between GDP, renewable energy, innovation, and CO2 emissions in Finland: a fourier-augmented ARDL analysis," Letters in Spatial and Resource Sciences, Springer, vol. 17(1), pages 1-23, December.
    3. Moutinho, Victor & Varum, Celeste & Madaleno, Mara, 2017. "How economic growth affects emissions? An investigation of the environmental Kuznets curve in Portuguese and Spanish economic activity sectors," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 106(C), pages 326-344.
    4. M. Hashem Pesaran & Yongcheol Shin & Richard J. Smith, 2001. "Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships," Journal of Applied Econometrics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 16(3), pages 289-326.
    5. Aller, Carlos & Ductor, Lorenzo & Grechyna, Daryna, 2021. "Robust determinants of CO2 emissions," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 96(C).
    6. Murat Cetin & Ilhan Ozturk & Sevgi Sumerli Sarigul & Muntasir Murshed & Emine Kilavuz, 2025. "Nexus between technological innovation and environmental pollution in selected OECD countries," Natural Resources Forum, Blackwell Publishing, vol. 49(1), pages 841-862, February.
    7. Ludlow, Jorge & Enders, Walter, 2000. "Estimating non-linear ARMA models using Fourier coefficients," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 16(3), pages 333-347.
    8. Kangyin Dong & Xiucheng Dong & Cong Dong, 2019. "Determinants of the global and regional CO2 emissions: What causes what and where?," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 51(46), pages 5031-5044, October.
    9. Enders, Walter & Lee, Junsoo, 2012. "The flexible Fourier form and Dickey–Fuller type unit root tests," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 117(1), pages 196-199.
    10. Sidra Nazir, 2024. "From curse to blessing: a fourier-augmented ARDL analysis of agriculture, geopolitics, and trade in south and central Asia," Letters in Spatial and Resource Sciences, Springer, vol. 17(1), pages 1-12, December.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Irina Georgescu & Jani Kinnunen, 2024. "Dynamic interactions between GDP, renewable energy, innovation, and CO2 emissions in Finland: a fourier-augmented ARDL analysis," Letters in Spatial and Resource Sciences, Springer, vol. 17(1), pages 1-23, December.
    2. Samet Gürsoy & Bartosz Jóźwik & Mesut Dogan & Feyyaz Zeren & Nazligul Gulcan, 2024. "Impact of Climate Policy Uncertainty, Clean Energy Index, and Carbon Emission Allowance Prices on Bitcoin Returns," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 16(9), pages 1-14, May.
    3. Srdelic, Leonarda & Barisic, Radoslav, 2024. "Does economic growth reduce or increase pollution? An examination of Croatia’s sector-specific Environmental Kuznets Curve," MPRA Paper 122841, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    4. Gopal Gopakumar & Ritika Jaiswal & Mayank Parashar, 2022. "Analysis of the Existence of Environmental Kuznets Curve: Evidence from India," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 12(1), pages 177-187.
    5. Syed, Qasim Raza & Durani, Farah & Kisswani, Khalid M. & Alola, Andrew Adewale & Siddiqui, Aaliyah & Anwar, Ahsan, 2024. "Testing natural resource curse hypothesis amidst geopolitical risk: Global evidence using novel Fourier augmented ARDL approach," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 88(C).
    6. Shahbaz, Muhammad & Nasir, Muhammad Ali & Roubaud, David, 2018. "Environmental degradation in France: The effects of FDI, financial development, and energy innovations," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 74(C), pages 843-857.
    7. Shabir Mohsin Hashmi & Xuyou Yu & Qasim Raza Syed & Li Rong, 2024. "Testing the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis amidst climate policy uncertainty: sectoral analysis using the novel Fourier ARDL approach," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 26(7), pages 16503-16522, July.
    8. Andrew Phiri, 2018. "How sustainable are fiscal budgets in the Kingdom of Swaziland?," Working Papers 1810, Department of Economics, Nelson Mandela University, revised Mar 2018.
    9. Abdul Hayy Haziq Mohamad & Muhamad Rias K. V. Zainuddin & Rossazana Ab-Rahim, 2023. "Does Renewable Energy Transition in the USA and China Overcome Environmental Degradation?," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 13(6), pages 234-243, November.
    10. Shabir Mohsin Hashmi & Muchun Wan & Qasim Raza Syed, 2025. "Does geopolitical risk impact the natural resources—Economic growth nexus?," Natural Resources Forum, Blackwell Publishing, vol. 49(1), pages 29-43, February.
    11. John Bbale Mayanja & Brian Arinaitwe & Ronald Kasaijja & John Mutenyo & Edward Damulira Sengonzi, 2024. "The Nexus Between Renewable Energy Consumption, Financial Development, and Trade Openness Based on Environmental Quality in Uganda: An Application of the ARDL," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 14(3), pages 711-718, May.
    12. Andrew Phiri, 2018. "Pursuing the Philips curve in an African monarchy: A Swazi case study," Working Papers 1832, Department of Economics, Nelson Mandela University.
    13. Hasanov, Fakhri J. & Shannak, Sa'd, 2020. "Electricity incentives for agriculture in Saudi Arabia. Is that relevant to remove them?," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 144(C).
    14. De Juan Fernández, Aránzazu & Poncela, Pilar & Rodríguez Caballero, Carlos Vladimir & Ruiz Ortega, Esther, 2022. "Economic activity and climate change," DES - Working Papers. Statistics and Econometrics. WS 35044, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. Departamento de Estadística.
    15. Mahmoud Radwan Hussein AlZgool & Syed Mir Muhammad Shah & Umair Ahmed, 2020. "Impact of Energy consumption and Economic Growth on Environmental Performance: Implications for Green Policy Practitioners," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 10(5), pages 655-662.
    16. Mohammad Razib Hossain, 2024. "Killing billions to save millions? Analyzing the double jeopardy of fossil-fuel-led economic development in Bangladesh," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 26(8), pages 20679-20710, August.
    17. Aránzazu Juan & Pilar Poncela & Esther Ruiz, 2025. "Economic activity and $$\hbox {CO}_2$$ CO 2 emissions in Spain," Empirical Economics, Springer, vol. 68(3), pages 1379-1408, March.
    18. Manzoor Ahmad & Shoukat Iqbal Khattak, 2020. "Is Aggregate Domestic Consumption Spending (ADCS) Per Capita Determining CO2 Emissions in South Africa? A New Perspective," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 75(3), pages 529-552, March.
    19. Daniel Armeanu & Georgeta Vintilă & Jean Vasile Andrei & Ştefan Cristian Gherghina & Mihaela Cristina Drăgoi & Cristian Teodor, 2018. "Exploring the link between environmental pollution and economic growth in EU-28 countries: Is there an environmental Kuznets curve?," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 13(5), pages 1-28, May.
    20. Phiri, Andrew, 2018. "Pursuing the Phillips curve in an African monarchy: The Swazi case," MPRA Paper 89199, University Library of Munich, Germany.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:spr:lsprsc:v:18:y:2025:i:1:d:10.1007_s12076-025-00411-4. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Sonal Shukla or Springer Nature Abstracting and Indexing (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.springer.com/ .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.