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Analyzing changes in types of household sanitation among 543 Parliamentary Constituencies between 2016 and 2021 in India

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  • Anoop Jain
  • Rockli Kim
  • S V Subramanian

Abstract

In India, the share of households with access to an improved private toilet has increased considerably over the past few decades. However, there are other types of toilets that households often rely on, such as unimproved toilets or shared toilets. And in many cases, households in India still do not have a toilet. This paper provides sub-national prevalence estimates for each of these toilet types across India’s 543 Parliamentary Constituencies (PCs) in 2016 and 2021 and highlights the PCs where the prevalence either increased or decreased. We used a Monte Carlo Markov Chain procedure to derive these estimates. Overall, we found considerable variation between PCs for each of the four toilet types. We also found that in the majority of PCs, the share of no-toilet households decreased by more than 9.99 percentage points between 2016 and 2021, while the share of improved private toilets increased by more than 9.99 percentage points over the same period. The PC-level prevalence of unimproved and shared toilets was similar in 2016 and 2021. Lessons from high-performing PCs should be studied and applied to PCs where the prevalence of no-toilet households remains high. Furthermore, PCs where the share of unimproved toilets remains high should implement policies to help households transition to improved toilets. This is especially important in mountainous areas. In areas where households rely on shared toilets, such as dense urban settlements, policy makers should implement strategies for ensuring these facilities are kept clean and well-maintained.

Suggested Citation

  • Anoop Jain & Rockli Kim & S V Subramanian, 2025. "Analyzing changes in types of household sanitation among 543 Parliamentary Constituencies between 2016 and 2021 in India," PLOS Water, Public Library of Science, vol. 4(8), pages 1-13, August.
    • Handle: RePEc:plo:pwat00:0000409
    DOI: 10.1371/journal.pwat.0000409
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Germáan Rodríguez & Noreen Goldman, 1995. "An Assessment of Estimation Procedures for Multilevel Models with Binary Responses," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A, Royal Statistical Society, vol. 158(1), pages 73-89, January.
    2. Günther, Isabel & Niwagaba, Charles B. & Lüthi, Christoph & Horst, Alexandra & Mosler, Hans-Joachim & Tumwebaze, Innocent K., 2012. "When is shared sanitation improved sanitation? - The correlation between number of users and toilet hygiene," MPRA Paper 45830, University Library of Munich, Germany.
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