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Spatial Heterogeneity in Women’s Financial Inclusion in India: An application of small area estimation

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Listed:
  • Swati Srivastava
  • Kaushalendra Kumar
  • Lotus McDougal
  • Apoorva Nambiar
  • Ashish Kumar Upadhyay
  • Katherine Hay
  • Anita Raj
  • Abhishek Singh

Abstract

Background: While India is making notable strides in women’s financial inclusion, closing remaining gaps is hampered by a lack of granular data at the sub-state level. This study uses model-based small-area estimation techniques, linking data of National Family Health Survey 2015−16 and 2019−21, respectively, with the 2011 Indian Census data to generate district-level estimates of three components of women’s financial inclusion: women’s bank/savings account ownership, their knowledge and use of microcredit programmes in 640 districts of India in 2015−16 and 2019−21. Results: Model-based estimates reveal considerable intra- and inter-state variations in all indicators. In NFHS-5, estimates of bank/savings account ownership varied from 56.1% in Kiphire district of Nagaland to 95.4% in Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu. Knowledge of microcredit programmes varied from 11.8% in Lawngtlai district of Mizoram to a maximum of 84.9% in Thiruvarur district of Tamil Nadu. The use of microcredit programmes was more limited (7.7%). Substantial within state clustering was present in all the three components. Districts with lower prevalences in NFHS-4 registered higher increase between NFHS-4 and NFHS-5 in women’s bank/savings account ownership and their knowledge of microcredit programmes. Conclusions: Present study reveals considerable intra-state variations in both rates of financial inclusion and changes in financial inclusion levels over time. Our approach provides a new tool for policy makers to identify and close remaining gaps in women’s financial inclusion.

Suggested Citation

  • Swati Srivastava & Kaushalendra Kumar & Lotus McDougal & Apoorva Nambiar & Ashish Kumar Upadhyay & Katherine Hay & Anita Raj & Abhishek Singh, 2026. "Spatial Heterogeneity in Women’s Financial Inclusion in India: An application of small area estimation," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 21(4), pages 1-20, April.
    • Handle: RePEc:plo:pone00:0347585
    DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0347585
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Demirguc-Kunt,Asli & Klapper,Leora & Singer,Dorothe, 2017. "Financial inclusion and inclusive growth : a review of recent empirical evidence," Policy Research Working Paper Series 8040, The World Bank.
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