Navigating the Delivery of Transit-Oriented Development: A Case Study of Private Developers in Riyadh

Transit-oriented development has gained global attention as a sustainable urban planning approach. However, its implementation in developing countries, particularly in the Middle East, remains underexplored. This study aims to investigate the challenges and opportunities facing private developers in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, in the context of delivering TOD projects. Using a mixed-methods approach that combines survey data and interviews, the research explores four key dimensions: regulatory, structural, collective vision, and economic factors. The findings reveal a complex local environment characterized by both encouraging prospects and formidable challenges. Institutional coordination, procedural clarity, and timely approval emerge as critical challenges in the regulatory dimension. Land-related issues, including land amalgamation and fragmented ownership, are identified as significant structural obstacles. While there is general enthusiasm for TOD among private developers, the lack of effective public–private collaboration and a unified vision hampers progress. Economically, high initial investments and regulatory uncertainties are the main challenges, although there is cautious optimism for future profitability. Despite these challenges, the study unveiled policy implications for implementation and offered information for context-specific adaptive planning. The research contributes to the growing body of literature on TOD in developing countries and lays the groundwork for future multistakeholder studies.