Multi-Criteria Decision-Making of Hybrid Energy Infrastructure for Fuel Cell and Battery Electric Buses

This study evaluates four hybrid infrastructure scenarios for supporting battery electric buses (BEBs) and fuel cell electric buses (FCEBs), analyzing different combinations of grid power, solar energy, battery storage, and fuel cell systems. A multi-stage framework—comprising energy demand forecasting, infrastructure capacity planning, and multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) evaluation incorporating total cost of ownership (TCO), carbon emissions, and energy resilience—was developed and applied to a real-world transit depot. The results highlight critical trade-offs between financial, environmental, and operational objectives. The limited rooftop solar configuration, integrating solar energy through a Solar Power Purchase Agreement (SPPA), emerges as the most cost-effective near-term solution. Offsite solar with onsite large-scale battery storage and offsite solar with fuel cell integration achieve greater sustainability and resilience, but they face substantial cost barriers. The analysis underscores the importance of balancing investment, emissions reduction, and resilience in planning zero-emission bus fleets.