IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jecomi/v13y2025i5p143-d1660628.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Does Financial Inclusion Affect Non-Performing Loans and Liquidity Risk in the MENA Region? A Comparative Analysis Between GCC and Non-GCC Countries

Author

Listed:
  • Abdelaziz Hakimi

    (V.P.N.C Lab, Faculty of Law, Economics, and Management of Jendouba, University of Jendouba, Jendouba 8100, Tunisia)

  • Hichem Saidi

    (Department of Economics, College of Business, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 13318, Saudi Arabia)

  • Lamia Adili

    (V.P.N.C Lab, Faculty of Law, Economics, and Management of Jendouba, University of Jendouba, Jendouba 8100, Tunisia)

Abstract

Over the past decade, the debate on the microeconomic effects of financial inclusion has intensified, with a growing body of research exploring how access to financial services impacts banks’ behaviors. Studying the effect of financial inclusion on bank risk is crucial because it helps understand how expanding access to financial services influences exposure to bank risks. This study explores the impact of financial inclusion on credit risk, measured by non-performing loans (NPLs), and liquidity risk measured by the loan-to-deposit (LTD) ratio in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The analysis is based on a sample of 74 banks observed between 2010 and 2021, and uses the System Generalized Method of Moments (SGMM). To conduct a comparative analysis, the whole sample is divided into two groups: the first includes GCC countries, while the second consists of non-Gulf Cooperation Council countries (NGCC). This sensitivity analysis was justified by several economic, financial, social, and regulatory differences between these two groups of countries. The findings reveal that across the MENA region and the two sub-regions, financial inclusion significantly reduces liquidity risk. However, it increases the level of NPLs in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Furthermore, findings indicate that banks in the MENA region and the GCC countries benefit from an interaction between financial inclusion and liquidity since it significantly reduces the level of NPLs. Finally, the analysis shows that financial inclusion does not play a moderating role in the relationship between credit and liquidity risks in the NGCC countries.

Suggested Citation

  • Abdelaziz Hakimi & Hichem Saidi & Lamia Adili, 2025. "Does Financial Inclusion Affect Non-Performing Loans and Liquidity Risk in the MENA Region? A Comparative Analysis Between GCC and Non-GCC Countries," Economies, MDPI, vol. 13(5), pages 1-23, May.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jecomi:v:13:y:2025:i:5:p:143-:d:1660628
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/13/5/143/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/13/5/143/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Bhattacharya Sudipto & Thakor Anjan V., 1993. "Contemporary Banking Theory," Journal of Financial Intermediation, Elsevier, vol. 3(1), pages 2-50, October.
    2. Banna, Hasanul & Kabir Hassan, M. & Rashid, Mamunur, 2021. "Fintech-based financial inclusion and bank risk-taking: Evidence from OIC countries," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 75(C).
    3. Mandira Sarma, 2016. "Measuring Financial Inclusion for Asian Economies," Palgrave Studies in Impact Finance, in: Sasidaran Gopalan & Tomoo Kikuchi (ed.), Financial Inclusion in Asia, chapter 1, pages 3-34, Palgrave Macmillan.
    4. Saif-Alyousfi, Abdulazeez Y.H. & Saha, Asish & Md-Rus, Rohani, 2020. "The impact of bank competition and concentration on bank risk-taking behavior and stability: Evidence from GCC countries," The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 51(C).
    5. Loan Thi-Hong Van & Anh The Vo & Nhan Thien Nguyen & Duc Hong Vo, 2021. "Financial Inclusion and Economic GROWTH: An International Evidence," Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 57(1), pages 239-263, January.
    6. Roland Beck & Petr Jakubik & Anamaria Piloiu, 2015. "Key Determinants of Non-performing Loans: New Evidence from a Global Sample," Open Economies Review, Springer, vol. 26(3), pages 525-550, July.
    7. Salome Musau & Stephen Muathe & Lucy Mwangi, 2018. "Financial Inclusion, Bank Competitiveness and Credit Risk of Commercial Banks in Kenya," International Journal of Financial Research, International Journal of Financial Research, Sciedu Press, vol. 9(1), pages 203-218, January.
    8. Nurfilzah Arham & Mohd Shamlie Salisi & Rozita Uji Mohammed & Jasman Tuyon, 2020. "Impact of macroeconomic cyclical indicators and country governance on bank non-performing loans in Emerging Asia," Eurasian Economic Review, Springer;Eurasia Business and Economics Society, vol. 10(4), pages 707-726, December.
    9. Blundell, Richard & Bond, Stephen, 1998. "Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 87(1), pages 115-143, August.
    10. Tijani Amara & Mohamed Mabrouki, 2019. "The Impact Of Liquidity And Credit Risks On The Bank Stability," Journal of Smart Economic Growth, , vol. 4(2), pages 97-116, September.
    11. Salome Musau & Stephen Muathe & Lucy Mwangi, 2018. "Financial Inclusion, GDP and Credit Risk of Commercial Banks in Kenya," International Journal of Economics and Finance, Canadian Center of Science and Education, vol. 10(3), pages 181-195, March.
    12. Ogechi Adeola & Olaniyi Evans, 2017. "The impact of microfinance on financial inclusion in Nigeria," Journal of Developing Areas, Tennessee State University, College of Business, vol. 51(4), pages 193-206, October-D.
    13. Katia Berti & Christian Engelen & Borek Vasicek, 2017. "A macroeconomic perspective on non-performing loans (NPLs)," Quarterly Report on the Euro Area (QREA), Directorate General Economic and Financial Affairs (DG ECFIN), European Commission, vol. 16(1), pages 7-21, March.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Chen, Ting-Hsuan & Shen, Chung-Hua & Wu, Meng-Wen & Huang, Kuo-Jui, 2021. "Effect of shadow banking on the relation between capital and liquidity creation," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 76(C), pages 166-184.
    2. Hu, Yue & Liu, Chang & Peng, Jiangang, 2021. "Financial inclusion and agricultural total factor productivity growth in China," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 96(C), pages 68-82.
    3. MBelen Salas & Prosper Lamothe & Enrique Delgado & Angel L. Fernández-Miguélez & Lucia Valcarce, 2024. "Determinants of Nonperforming Loans: A Global Data Analysis," Computational Economics, Springer;Society for Computational Economics, vol. 64(5), pages 2695-2716, November.
    4. Sascha Tobias Wengerek & Benjamin Hippert & André Uhde, 2019. "Risk allocation through securitization - Evidence from non-performing loans," Working Papers Dissertations 58, Paderborn University, Faculty of Business Administration and Economics.
    5. Fang, Yi & Wang, Qi & Wang, Fan & Zhao, Yang, 2023. "Bank fintech, liquidity creation, and risk-taking: Evidence from China," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 127(C).
    6. Sant'Anna, Dário A.L.M. & Figueiredo, Paulo N., 2024. "Fintech innovation: Is it beneficial or detrimental to financial inclusion and financial stability? A systematic literature review and research directions," Emerging Markets Review, Elsevier, vol. 60(C).
    7. Elekdag, Selim & Emrullahu, Drilona & Ben Naceur, Sami, 2025. "Does FinTech Increase Bank Risk-taking?," Journal of Financial Stability, Elsevier, vol. 76(C).
    8. Aswini Kumar Mishra & Shikhar Jain & R. L. Manogna, 2021. "Does corporate governance characteristics influence firm performance in India? Empirical evidence using dynamic panel data analysis," International Journal of Disclosure and Governance, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 18(1), pages 71-82, March.
    9. Guo, Pin & Zhang, Cheng, 2023. "The impact of bank FinTech on liquidity creation: Evidence from China," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 64(C).
    10. Japan Huynh, 2023. "Bank competition and liquidity hoarding," Eurasian Economic Review, Springer;Eurasia Business and Economics Society, vol. 13(3), pages 429-467, December.
    11. Aamir Aijaz Syed & Assad Ullah & Muhammad Abdul Kamal, 2024. "Does economic policy uncertainty impedes financial inclusion in BRICS economies: the mediating role of quality of governance," Economic Change and Restructuring, Springer, vol. 57(1), pages 1-24, February.
    12. Candida Ferreira, 2023. "The Influence of Bank Performance, Market Condition and Economic Growth on Non-Performing Loansa," World Journal of Applied Economics, WERI-World Economic Research Institute, vol. 9(1), pages 77-98, June.
    13. Jeongsim Kim, 2018. "Bank Competition And Financial Stability: Liquidity Risk Perspective," Contemporary Economic Policy, Western Economic Association International, vol. 36(2), pages 337-362, April.
    14. Tran, Vuong Thao & Lin, Chien-Ting & Nguyen, Hoa, 2016. "Liquidity creation, regulatory capital, and bank profitability," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 48(C), pages 98-109.
    15. Roman Horváth & Jakub Seidler & Laurent Weill, 2014. "Bank Capital and Liquidity Creation: Granger-Causality Evidence," Journal of Financial Services Research, Springer;Western Finance Association, vol. 45(3), pages 341-361, June.
    16. Seba Mohanty & Jitendra Mahakud, 2021. "Causal Nexus Between Liquidity Creation and Bank Capital Ratio: Evidence from India," Margin: The Journal of Applied Economic Research, National Council of Applied Economic Research, vol. 15(2), pages 205-237, May.
    17. Abdul Karim Kamara, 2024. "The Impact of Financial Inclusion on Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction: Empirical Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa," International Journal of Science and Business, IJSAB International, vol. 32(1), pages 16-33.
    18. Umar Muhammad & Sun Gang, 2016. "Non-performing loans (NPLs), liquidity creation, and moral hazard: Case of Chinese banks," China Finance and Economic Review, De Gruyter, vol. 5(3), pages 51-75, September.
    19. Vyshnevskyi, Iegor & Sohn, Wook, 2023. "Nonperforming loans and related lending: Evidence from Ukraine," Emerging Markets Review, Elsevier, vol. 57(C).
    20. Nguyen, Thach V.H. & Nguyen, Thai Vu Hong, 2022. "How do banks price liquidity? The role of market power," Global Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 53(C).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jecomi:v:13:y:2025:i:5:p:143-:d:1660628. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.