IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jcltec/v7y2025i3p62-d1702327.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

An Overview of Biodiesel Production via Heterogeneous Catalysts: Synthesis, Current Advances, and Challenges

Author

Listed:
  • Maya Yaghi

    (Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Jounieh BP 446, Lebanon
    IMT-Atlantique, GEPEA UMR-CNRS 6144, 44300 Nantes, France)

  • Sandra Chidiac

    (Department of Agriculture and Food Engineering, School of Engineering, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Jounieh BP 446, Lebanon)

  • Sary Awad

    (IMT-Atlantique, GEPEA UMR-CNRS 6144, 44300 Nantes, France)

  • Youssef El Rayess

    (Department of Agriculture and Food Engineering, School of Engineering, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Jounieh BP 446, Lebanon)

  • Nancy Zgheib

    (Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Jounieh BP 446, Lebanon)

Abstract

Biodiesel, a renewable and environmentally friendly alternative to fossil fuels, has attracted significant attention due to its potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, high production costs and complex processing remain challenges. Heterogeneous catalysts have shown promise in overcoming these barriers by offering benefits, such as easy separation, reusability, low-cost raw materials, and the ability to reduce reaction times and energy consumption. This review evaluates key classes of heterogeneous catalysts, such as metal oxides, ion exchange resins, and zeolites, and their performance in transesterification and esterification processes. It highlights the importance of catalyst preparation methods, textural properties, including surface area, pore volume, and pore size, activation techniques, and critical operational parameters, like the methanol-to-oil ratio, temperature, time, catalyst loading, and reusability. The analysis reveals that catalysts supported on high surface area materials often achieve higher biodiesel yields, while metal oxides derived from natural sources provide cost-effective and sustainable options. Challenges, such as catalyst deactivation, sensitivity to feedstock composition, and variability in performance, are discussed. Overall, the findings underscore the potential of heterogeneous catalysts to enhance biodiesel production efficiency, although further optimization and standardized evaluation protocols are necessary for their broader industrial application.

Suggested Citation

  • Maya Yaghi & Sandra Chidiac & Sary Awad & Youssef El Rayess & Nancy Zgheib, 2025. "An Overview of Biodiesel Production via Heterogeneous Catalysts: Synthesis, Current Advances, and Challenges," Clean Technol., MDPI, vol. 7(3), pages 1-55, July.
  • Handle: RePEc:gam:jcltec:v:7:y:2025:i:3:p:62-:d:1702327
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2571-8797/7/3/62/pdf
    Download Restriction: no

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2571-8797/7/3/62/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Ayadi, Manel & Awad, Sary & Villot, Audrey & Abderrabba, Manef & Tazerout, Mohand, 2021. "Heterogeneous acid catalyst preparation from olive pomace and its use for olive pomace oil esterification," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 165(P2), pages 1-13.
    2. Mendonça, Iasmin M. & Paes, Orlando A.R.L. & Maia, Paulo J.S. & Souza, Mayane P. & Almeida, Richardson A. & Silva, Cláudia C. & Duvoisin, Sérgio & de Freitas, Flávio A., 2019. "New heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production from waste tucumã peels (Astrocaryum aculeatum Meyer): Parameters optimization study," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 130(C), pages 103-110.
    3. Mukhtar, Ahmad & Saqib, Sidra & Lin, Hongfei & Hassan Shah, Mansoor Ul & Ullah, Sami & Younas, Muhammad & Rezakazemi, Mashallah & Ibrahim, Muhammad & Mahmood, Abid & Asif, Saira & Bokhari, Awais, 2022. "Current status and challenges in the heterogeneous catalysis for biodiesel production," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 157(C).
    4. Hoora Mazaheri & Hwai Chyuan Ong & Zeynab Amini & Haji Hassan Masjuki & M. Mofijur & Chia Hung Su & Irfan Anjum Badruddin & T.M. Yunus Khan, 2021. "An Overview of Biodiesel Production via Calcium Oxide Based Catalysts: Current State and Perspective," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(13), pages 1-23, July.
    5. Zhang, Bingxin & Gao, Ming & Tang, Weiqi & Wang, Xiaona & Wu, Chuanfu & Wang, Qunhui & Xie, Haijiao, 2023. "Reduced surface sulphonic acid concentration Alleviates carbon-based solid acid catalysts deactivation in biodiesel production," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 271(C).
    6. El yaakouby, Ichraq & Rhrissi, Ilyass & Abouliatim, Youness & Hlaibi, Miloudi & Kamil, Noureddine, 2023. "Moroccan sardine scales as a novel and renewable source of heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production using palm fatty acid distillate," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 217(C).
    7. Pasa, Thiago Luiz Belo & Souza, Gredson Keiff & Diório, Alexandre & Arroyo, Pedro Augusto & Pereira, Nehemias Curvelo, 2020. "Assessment of commercial acidic ion-exchange resin for ethyl esters synthesis from Acrocomia aculeata (Macaúba) crude oil," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 146(C), pages 469-476.
    8. Betiku, Eriola & Akintunde, Aramide Mistura & Ojumu, Tunde Victor, 2016. "Banana peels as a biobase catalyst for fatty acid methyl esters production using Napoleon's plume (Bauhinia monandra) seed oil: A process parameters optimization study," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 103(C), pages 797-806.
    9. Endalew, Abebe K. & Kiros, Yohannes & Zanzi, Rolando, 2011. "Heterogeneous catalysis for biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas oil (JCO)," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 36(5), pages 2693-2700.
    10. João Paulo da Costa Evangelista & Aruzza Mabel de Morais Araújo & Amanda Duarte Gondim & Antonio Souza de Araujo, 2025. "The role of acidity in fatty acid esterification with heterogeneous silica catalysts impregnated with Zr and sulfates," Energy & Environment, , vol. 36(2), pages 786-806, March.
    11. Marinković, Dalibor M. & Stanković, Miroslav V. & Veličković, Ana V. & Avramović, Jelena M. & Miladinović, Marija R. & Stamenković, Olivera O. & Veljković, Vlada B. & Jovanović, Dušan M., 2016. "Calcium oxide as a promising heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production: Current state and perspectives," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 56(C), pages 1387-1408.
    12. Al-Saadi, Ali & Mathan, Bobby & He, Yinghe, 2020. "Esterification and transesterification over SrO–ZnO/Al2O3 as a novel bifunctional catalyst for biodiesel production," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 158(C), pages 388-399.
    13. Gong, Shu-wen & Lu, Jing & Wang, Hong-hong & Liu, Li-jun & Zhang, Qian, 2014. "Biodiesel production via esterification of oleic acid catalyzed by picolinic acid modified 12-tungstophosphoric acid," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 134(C), pages 283-289.
    14. Leung, Dennis Y.C. & Wu, Xuan & Leung, M.K.H., 2010. "A review on biodiesel production using catalyzed transesterification," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 87(4), pages 1083-1095, April.
    15. Lokman, Ibrahim M. & Rashid, Umer & Taufiq-Yap, Yun Hin & Yunus, Robiah, 2015. "Methyl ester production from palm fatty acid distillate using sulfonated glucose-derived acid catalyst," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 81(C), pages 347-354.
    16. Nahas, Lea & Dahdah, Eliane & Aouad, Samer & El Khoury, Bilal & Gennequin, Cedric & Abi Aad, Edmond & Estephane, Jane, 2023. "Highly efficient scallop seashell-derived catalyst for biodiesel production from sunflower and waste cooking oils: Reaction kinetics and effect of calcination temperature studies," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 202(C), pages 1086-1095.
    17. Borah, Manash Jyoti & Devi, Anuchaya & Borah, Raju & Deka, Dhanapati, 2019. "Synthesis and application of Co doped ZnO as heterogeneous nanocatalyst for biodiesel production from non-edible oil," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 133(C), pages 512-519.
    18. Torkzaban, Sama & Feyzi, Mostafa & norouzi, Leila, 2022. "A novel robust CaO/ZnFe2O4 hollow magnetic microspheres heterogenous catalyst for synthesis biodiesel from waste frying sunflower oil," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 200(C), pages 996-1007.
    19. Jesús Andrés Tavizón-Pozos & Gerardo Chavez-Esquivel & Víctor Alejandro Suárez-Toriello & Carlos Eduardo Santolalla-Vargas & Oscar Abel Luévano-Rivas & Omar Uriel Valdés-Martínez & Alfonso Talavera-Ló, 2021. "State of Art of Alkaline Earth Metal Oxides Catalysts Used in the Transesterification of Oils for Biodiesel Production," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(4), pages 1-24, February.
    20. Li, Ying & Niu, Shengli & Wang, Jun & Zhou, Wenbo & Wang, Yongzheng & Han, Kuihua & Lu, Chunmei, 2022. "Mesoporous SrTiO3 perovskite as a heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production: Experimental and DFT studies," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 184(C), pages 164-175.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Saikia, Kankana & Das, Arpita & Sema, Atoholi H. & Basumatary, Sanjay & Shaemningwar Moyon, N. & Mathimani, Thangavel & Rokhum, Samuel Lalthazuala, 2024. "Response surface optimization, kinetics, thermodynamics, and life cycle cost analysis of biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas oil using biomass-based functional activated carbon catalyst," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 229(C).
    2. Papargyriou, Despoina & Broumidis, Emmanouil & de Vere-Tucker, Matthew & Gavrielides, Stelios & Hilditch, Paul & Irvine, John T.S. & Bonaccorso, Alfredo D., 2019. "Investigation of solid base catalysts for biodiesel production from fish oil," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 139(C), pages 661-669.
    3. Hoora Mazaheri & Hwai Chyuan Ong & Zeynab Amini & Haji Hassan Masjuki & M. Mofijur & Chia Hung Su & Irfan Anjum Badruddin & T.M. Yunus Khan, 2021. "An Overview of Biodiesel Production via Calcium Oxide Based Catalysts: Current State and Perspective," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(13), pages 1-23, July.
    4. El yaakouby, Ichraq & Rhrissi, Ilyass & Abouliatim, Youness & Hlaibi, Miloudi & Kamil, Noureddine, 2023. "Moroccan sardine scales as a novel and renewable source of heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production using palm fatty acid distillate," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 217(C).
    5. Balajii, Muthusamy & Niju, Subramaniapillai, 2020. "Banana peduncle – A green and renewable heterogeneous base catalyst for biodiesel production from Ceiba pentandra oil," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 146(C), pages 2255-2269.
    6. Nahas, Lea & Dahdah, Eliane & Aouad, Samer & El Khoury, Bilal & Gennequin, Cedric & Abi Aad, Edmond & Estephane, Jane, 2023. "Highly efficient scallop seashell-derived catalyst for biodiesel production from sunflower and waste cooking oils: Reaction kinetics and effect of calcination temperature studies," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 202(C), pages 1086-1095.
    7. Goh, Brandon Han Hoe & Ong, Hwai Chyuan & Cheah, Mei Yee & Chen, Wei-Hsin & Yu, Kai Ling & Mahlia, Teuku Meurah Indra, 2019. "Sustainability of direct biodiesel synthesis from microalgae biomass: A critical review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 107(C), pages 59-74.
    8. Sánchez, Marcos & Navas, Marisa & Ruggera, José F. & Casella, Mónica L. & Aracil, José & Martínez, Mercedes, 2014. "Biodiesel production optimization using γAl2O3 based catalysts," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 73(C), pages 661-669.
    9. Hwei Voon Lee & Joon Ching Juan & Taufiq-Yap Yun Hin & Hwai Chyuan Ong, 2016. "Environment-Friendly Heterogeneous Alkaline-Based Mixed Metal Oxide Catalysts for Biodiesel Production," Energies, MDPI, vol. 9(8), pages 1-12, August.
    10. Eldiehy, Khalifa S.H. & Gohain, Minakshi & Daimary, Niran & Borah, Doljit & Mandal, Manabendra & Deka, Dhanapati, 2022. "Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) leaves: A novel source for a highly efficient heterogeneous base catalyst for biodiesel production using waste soybean cooking oil and Scenedesmus obliquus oil," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 191(C), pages 888-901.
    11. Das, Arpita & Li, Hui & Kataki, Rupam & Agrawal, Pratibha S. & Moyon, N.S. & Gurunathan, Baskar & Rokhum, Samuel Lalthazuala, 2023. "Terminalia arjuna bark – A highly efficient renewable heterogeneous base catalyst for biodiesel production," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 212(C), pages 185-196.
    12. Kazemi Shariat Panahi, Hamed & Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, Homa & Dehhaghi, Mona & Orooji, Yasin & Mahian, Omid & Shahbeik, Hossein & Kiehbadroudinezhad, Mohammadali & Kalam, Md Abul & Karimi-Maleh, Hassa, 2024. "Nanotechnology applications in biodiesel processing and production: A comprehensive review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 192(C).
    13. Baraka Kichonge & Thomas Kivevele, 2024. "Sustainable biofuel production in Sub‐Saharan Africa: Exploring transesterification process, nonedible feedstocks, and policy implications," Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 13(3), May.
    14. Xie, Wenlei & Li, Jiangbo, 2023. "Magnetic solid catalysts for sustainable and cleaner biodiesel production: A comprehensive review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 171(C).
    15. Aisien, Felix Aibuedefe & Aisien, Eki Tina, 2023. "Modeling and optimization of transesterification of rubber seed oil using sulfonated CaO derived from giant African land snail (Achatina fulica) catalyst by response surface methodology," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 207(C), pages 137-146.
    16. Dahdah, Eliane & Estephane, Jane & Haydar, Reem & Youssef, Yara & El Khoury, Bilal & Gennequin, Cedric & Aboukaïs, Antoine & Abi-Aad, Edmond & Aouad, Samer, 2020. "Biodiesel production from refined sunflower oil over Ca–Mg–Al catalysts: Effect of the composition and the thermal treatment," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 146(C), pages 1242-1248.
    17. Kavitha Munisamy Sambasivam & Praveen Kuppan & Lafiya Shanavas Laila & Viswanaathan Shashirekha & Krishnamurthi Tamilarasan & Sudharsanam Abinandan, 2023. "Kernel-Based Biodiesel Production from Non-Edible Oil Seeds: Techniques, Optimization, and Environmental Implications," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(22), pages 1-34, November.
    18. Shemelis N. Gebremariam & Trine Hvoslef-Eide & Meseret T. Terfa & Jorge M. Marchetti, 2019. "Techno-Economic Performance of Different Technological Based Bio-Refineries for Biofuel Production," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(20), pages 1-21, October.
    19. Singh, Bhaskar & Guldhe, Abhishek & Rawat, Ismail & Bux, Faizal, 2014. "Towards a sustainable approach for development of biodiesel from plant and microalgae," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 29(C), pages 216-245.
    20. Cong, Wen-Jie & Wang, Yi-Tong & Li, Hu & Fang, Zhen & Sun, Jie & Liu, Hai-Tong & Liu, Jie-Teng & Tang, Song & Xu, Lujiang, 2020. "Direct production of biodiesel from waste oils with a strong solid base from alkalized industrial clay ash," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 264(C).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jcltec:v:7:y:2025:i:3:p:62-:d:1702327. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.