IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/rensus/v219y2025ics1364032125005246.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Review on phase change materials and thermoelectric generators for ocean thermal gradient applications

Author

Listed:
  • Saini, Prashant
  • Osorio, Julian D.

Abstract

Ocean thermal energy has the potential to address the challenge of balancing long-term operation and high-frequency monitoring due to the limited energy storage capacity of batteries for unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs). Several emerging technologies to power UUV, profiling floats, and other ocean applications, including the thermoelectric generators (TEGs), phase change materials (PCMs), and memory shape alloys have been proposed. However, most of these technologies are still in an early stage of development and have not been deployed on a commercial scale. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive review on TEGs and PCMs to harness ocean thermal gradients. This review is focused on TEGs' and PCMs' characteristics, properties, and progress to address technical limitations to advance towards the deployment in ocean power applications, such as ocean thermal energy-powered UUVs at a commercial scale. First, the paper provides a thorough review of the different PCMs, TEGs, focusing on enhancing their thermophysical properties. Then, based on their technical attributes and the ocean thermal gradient potential in the United States, a selection of PCMs and TEGs is proposed for different locations and seasons. The ocean thermal gradient offers a stable annual storage potential of approximately 1.09 × 1019 MJ, with about 7.63 × 1017 MJ being harnessable with an efficiency of 7 %. Despite PCM-based UUVs is one the most promising alternatives for ocean thermal gradient applications, the low heat transfer rates, low energy conversion efficiency (between 0.14 % and 0.6 %), and low energy storage density (around 0.26 Wh/kg) are the main challenges for effective commercial scale applications. This study identifies key PCMs suitable for ocean thermal applications, including organic, inorganic, and eutectic PCMs, with melting enthalpies ranging from 100 to 250 kJ/kg. It also evaluates various TEGs for different oceanic locations and seasonal variations. Recent advancements in integrating PCMs with TEGs, through enhanced materials and innovative designs, have significantly improved energy conversion performance, increasing thermal conductivity by up to 15 times using metal foams and 10 times using nanomaterials. The integration of PCMs and TEGs offers a feasible alternative to power future UUVs, profiling floats, and other ocean power technologies, including aquaculture farming and water desalination.

Suggested Citation

  • Saini, Prashant & Osorio, Julian D., 2025. "Review on phase change materials and thermoelectric generators for ocean thermal gradient applications," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 219(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:rensus:v:219:y:2025:i:c:s1364032125005246
    DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2025.115851
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032125005246
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.rser.2025.115851?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to

    for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Nithesh, K.G. & Chatterjee, Dhiman, 2016. "Numerical prediction of the performance of radial inflow turbine designed for ocean thermal energy conversion system," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 167(C), pages 1-16.
    2. Oró, E. & de Gracia, A. & Castell, A. & Farid, M.M. & Cabeza, L.F., 2012. "Review on phase change materials (PCMs) for cold thermal energy storage applications," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 99(C), pages 513-533.
    3. Cui, Wenlong & Yuan, Yanping & Sun, Liangliang & Cao, Xiaoling & Yang, Xiaojiao, 2016. "Experimental studies on the supercooling and melting/freezing characteristics of nano-copper/sodium acetate trihydrate composite phase change materials," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 99(C), pages 1029-1037.
    4. Simonsen, Galina & Ravotti, Rebecca & O'Neill, Poppy & Stamatiou, Anastasia, 2023. "Biobased phase change materials in energy storage and thermal management technologies," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 184(C).
    5. Salunkhe, Pramod B. & Shembekar, Prashant S., 2012. "A review on effect of phase change material encapsulation on the thermal performance of a system," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 16(8), pages 5603-5616.
    6. Sarı, Ahmet & Kaygusuz, Kamil, 2001. "Thermal performance of myristic acid as a phase change material for energy storage application," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 24(2), pages 303-317.
    7. Karami Lakeh, Hossein & Kaatuzian, Hassan & Hosseini, Reza, 2019. "A parametrical study on photo-electro-thermal performance of an integrated thermoelectric-photovoltaic cell," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 138(C), pages 542-550.
    8. Pereira da Cunha, Jose & Eames, Philip, 2016. "Thermal energy storage for low and medium temperature applications using phase change materials – A review," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 177(C), pages 227-238.
    9. Atouei, S. Ahmadi & Rezania, A. & Ranjbar, A.A. & Rosendahl, L.A., 2018. "Protection and thermal management of thermoelectric generator system using phase change materials: An experimental investigation," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 156(C), pages 311-318.
    10. Wang, Guohui & Yang, Yanan & Wang, Shuxin & Zhang, Hongwei & Wang, Yanhui, 2019. "Efficiency analysis and experimental validation of the ocean thermal energy conversion with phase change material for underwater vehicle," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 248(C), pages 475-488.
    11. Qiu, Lin & Ouyang, Yuxin & Feng, Yanhui & Zhang, Xinxin, 2019. "Review on micro/nano phase change materials for solar thermal applications," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 140(C), pages 513-538.
    12. He, Wei & Zhang, Gan & Zhang, Xingxing & Ji, Jie & Li, Guiqiang & Zhao, Xudong, 2015. "Recent development and application of thermoelectric generator and cooler," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 143(C), pages 1-25.
    13. Zhang, P. & Meng, Z.N. & Zhu, H. & Wang, Y.L. & Peng, S.P., 2017. "Melting heat transfer characteristics of a composite phase change material fabricated by paraffin and metal foam," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 185(P2), pages 1971-1983.
    14. Cheng, Fuqiang & Hong, Yanji & Li, Weiping & Guo, Xiaohong & Zhang, Hailong & Fu, Feng & Feng, Bingqing & Wang, Gang & Wang, Chao & Qin, Haibing, 2017. "A thermoelectric generator for scavenging gas-heat: From module optimization to prototype test," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 121(C), pages 545-560.
    15. Ma, Xiaonan & Shu, Gequn & Tian, Hua & Xu, Wen & Chen, Tianyu, 2019. "Performance assessment of engine exhaust-based segmented thermoelectric generators by length ratio optimization," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 248(C), pages 614-625.
    16. Xiao Wu & Xiangnan Wang & Bingzhen Wang, 2023. "Test and Analysis of the Heat Exchanger for Small Ocean Thermal Energy Power Generation Devices," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(22), pages 1-14, November.
    17. Feng, Daili & Feng, Yanhui & Qiu, Lin & Li, Pei & Zang, Yuyang & Zou, Hanying & Yu, Zepei & Zhang, Xinxin, 2019. "Review on nanoporous composite phase change materials: Fabrication, characterization, enhancement and molecular simulation," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 109(C), pages 578-605.
    18. Liu, Yang & Zheng, Ruowei & Li, Ji, 2022. "High latent heat phase change materials (PCMs) with low melting temperature for thermal management and storage of electronic devices and power batteries: Critical review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 168(C).
    19. Tong, Xuan & Li, Nianqi & Zeng, Min & Wang, Qiuwang, 2019. "Organic phase change materials confined in carbon-based materials for thermal properties enhancement: Recent advancement and challenges," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 108(C), pages 398-422.
    20. Jung, Hyunjun & Subban, Chinmayee V. & McTigue, Joshua Dominic & Martinez, Jayson J. & Copping, Andrea E. & Osorio, Julian & Liu, Jian & Deng, Z. Daniel, 2022. "Extracting energy from ocean thermal and salinity gradients to power unmanned underwater vehicles: State of the art, current limitations, and future outlook," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 160(C).
    21. Wang, Xiaoming & Shang, Jianzhong & Luo, Zirong & Tang, Li & Zhang, Xiangpo & Li, Juan, 2012. "Reviews of power systems and environmental energy conversion for unmanned underwater vehicles," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 16(4), pages 1958-1970.
    22. Hawlader, M. N. A. & Uddin, M. S. & Khin, Mya Mya, 2003. "Microencapsulated PCM thermal-energy storage system," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 74(1-2), pages 195-202, January.
    23. Huang, Xiang & Alva, Guruprasad & Liu, Lingkun & Fang, Guiyin, 2017. "Microstructure and thermal properties of cetyl alcohol/high density polyethylene composite phase change materials with carbon fiber as shape-stabilized thermal storage materials," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 200(C), pages 19-27.
    24. Tao, Y.B. & He, Ya-Ling, 2018. "A review of phase change material and performance enhancement method for latent heat storage system," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 93(C), pages 245-259.
    25. Zhou, D. & Zhao, C.Y. & Tian, Y., 2012. "Review on thermal energy storage with phase change materials (PCMs) in building applications," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 92(C), pages 593-605.
    26. Edyta Nartowska & Marta Styś-Maniara & Tomasz Kozłowski, 2023. "The Potential Environmental and Social Influence of the Inorganic Salt Hydrates Used as a Phase Change Material for Thermal Energy Storage in Solar Installations," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(2), pages 1-21, January.
    27. Yang, Jialin & Yang, Lijun & Xu, Chao & Du, Xiaoze, 2016. "Experimental study on enhancement of thermal energy storage with phase-change material," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 169(C), pages 164-176.
    28. Akeiber, Hussein & Nejat, Payam & Majid, Muhd Zaimi Abd. & Wahid, Mazlan A. & Jomehzadeh, Fatemeh & Zeynali Famileh, Iman & Calautit, John Kaiser & Hughes, Ben Richard & Zaki, Sheikh Ahmad, 2016. "A review on phase change material (PCM) for sustainable passive cooling in building envelopes," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 60(C), pages 1470-1497.
    29. Tian, Hua & Sun, Xiuxiu & Jia, Qi & Liang, Xingyu & Shu, Gequn & Wang, Xu, 2015. "Comparison and parameter optimization of a segmented thermoelectric generator by using the high temperature exhaust of a diesel engine," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 84(C), pages 121-130.
    30. Wang, Changhong & Lin, Tao & Li, Na & Zheng, Huanpei, 2016. "Heat transfer enhancement of phase change composite material: Copper foam/paraffin," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 96(PA), pages 960-965.
    31. Yang, Xiaohu & Bai, Qingsong & Zhang, Qunli & Hu, Wenju & Jin, Liwen & Yan, Jinyue, 2018. "Thermal and economic analysis of charging and discharging characteristics of composite phase change materials for cold storage," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 225(C), pages 585-599.
    32. Fan, Liwu & Khodadadi, J.M., 2011. "Thermal conductivity enhancement of phase change materials for thermal energy storage: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 15(1), pages 24-46, January.
    33. Kenisarin, Murat M., 2010. "High-temperature phase change materials for thermal energy storage," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 14(3), pages 955-970, April.
    34. Uihlein, Andreas & Magagna, Davide, 2016. "Wave and tidal current energy – A review of the current state of research beyond technology," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 58(C), pages 1070-1081.
    35. Falcão Carneiro, J. & Gomes de Almeida, F., 2016. "Model of a thermal driven volumetric pump for energy harvesting in an underwater glider," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 112(C), pages 28-42.
    36. Tian, Y. & Zhao, C.Y., 2011. "A numerical investigation of heat transfer in phase change materials (PCMs) embedded in porous metals," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 36(9), pages 5539-5546.
    37. Agyenim, Francis & Hewitt, Neil & Eames, Philip & Smyth, Mervyn, 2010. "A review of materials, heat transfer and phase change problem formulation for latent heat thermal energy storage systems (LHTESS)," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 14(2), pages 615-628, February.
    38. Twaha, Ssennoga & Zhu, Jie & Yan, Yuying & Li, Bo, 2016. "A comprehensive review of thermoelectric technology: Materials, applications, modelling and performance improvement," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 65(C), pages 698-726.
    39. Xiao, X. & Zhang, P. & Li, M., 2013. "Preparation and thermal characterization of paraffin/metal foam composite phase change material," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 112(C), pages 1357-1366.
    40. Marian Von Lukowicz & Elisabeth Abbe & Tino Schmiel & Martin Tajmar, 2016. "Thermoelectric Generators on Satellites—An Approach for Waste Heat Recovery in Space," Energies, MDPI, vol. 9(7), pages 1-14, July.
    41. Yilbas, B.S. & Sahin, A.Z., 2010. "Thermoelectric device and optimum external load parameter and slenderness ratio," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 35(12), pages 5380-5384.
    42. Li, Chuan & Li, Qi & Ding, Yulong, 2019. "Investigation on the thermal performance of a high temperature packed bed thermal energy storage system containing carbonate salt based composite phase change materials," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 247(C), pages 374-388.
    43. Ahmad, Abrar & Memon, Shazim Ali, 2024. "A novel method to evaluate phase change materials' impact on buildings' energy, economic, and environmental performance via controlled natural ventilation," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 353(PB).
    44. Yuan, Yanping & Zhang, Nan & Tao, Wenquan & Cao, Xiaoling & He, Yaling, 2014. "Fatty acids as phase change materials: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 29(C), pages 482-498.
    45. Daniel Chocontá Bernal & Edmundo Muñoz & Giovanni Manente & Adriano Sciacovelli & Hossein Ameli & Alejandro Gallego-Schmid, 2021. "Environmental Assessment of Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage Technology System with Phase Change Material for Domestic Heating Applications," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(20), pages 1-17, October.
    46. Tumirah, K. & Hussein, M.Z. & Zulkarnain, Z. & Rafeadah, R., 2014. "Nano-encapsulated organic phase change material based on copolymer nanocomposites for thermal energy storage," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 66(C), pages 881-890.
    47. Li, Guiqiang & Shittu, Samson & zhou, Kai & Zhao, Xudong & Ma, Xiaoli, 2019. "Preliminary experiment on a novel photovoltaic-thermoelectric system in summer," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 188(C).
    48. Ellabban, Omar & Abu-Rub, Haitham & Blaabjerg, Frede, 2014. "Renewable energy resources: Current status, future prospects and their enabling technology," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 39(C), pages 748-764.
    49. Sun, Hongli & Lin, Borong & Lin, Zhirong & Zhu, Yingxin, 2019. "Experimental study on a novel flat-heat-pipe heating system integrated with phase change material and thermoelectric unit," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 189(C).
    50. Liu, Zhenyu & Yao, Yuanpeng & Wu, Huiying, 2013. "Numerical modeling for solid–liquid phase change phenomena in porous media: Shell-and-tube type latent heat thermal energy storage," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 112(C), pages 1222-1232.
    51. Kotaro Kawajiri & Yusuke Kishita & Yoshikazu Shinohara, 2021. "Life Cycle Assessment of Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs) in an Automobile Application," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(24), pages 1-13, December.
    52. Wang, Guohui & Yang, Yanan & Wang, Shuxin, 2020. "Ocean thermal energy application technologies for unmanned underwater vehicles: A comprehensive review," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 278(C).
    53. Sharma, Atul & Tyagi, V.V. & Chen, C.R. & Buddhi, D., 2009. "Review on thermal energy storage with phase change materials and applications," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 13(2), pages 318-345, February.
    54. Merlin, Kevin & Delaunay, Didier & Soto, Jérôme & Traonvouez, Luc, 2016. "Heat transfer enhancement in latent heat thermal storage systems: Comparative study of different solutions and thermal contact investigation between the exchanger and the PCM," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 166(C), pages 107-116.
    55. Wang, Guangyao & Ha, Dong Sam & Wang, Kevin G., 2019. "A scalable environmental thermal energy harvester based on solid/liquid phase-change materials," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 250(C), pages 1468-1480.
    56. Meng, Z.N. & Zhang, P., 2017. "Experimental and numerical investigation of a tube-in-tank latent thermal energy storage unit using composite PCM," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 190(C), pages 524-539.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Liu, Yang & Zheng, Ruowei & Li, Ji, 2022. "High latent heat phase change materials (PCMs) with low melting temperature for thermal management and storage of electronic devices and power batteries: Critical review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 168(C).
    2. Rostami, Sara & Afrand, Masoud & Shahsavar, Amin & Sheikholeslami, M. & Kalbasi, Rasool & Aghakhani, Saeed & Shadloo, Mostafa Safdari & Oztop, Hakan F., 2020. "A review of melting and freezing processes of PCM/nano-PCM and their application in energy storage," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 211(C).
    3. Zhang, Shuai & Feng, Daili & Shi, Lei & Wang, Li & Jin, Yingai & Tian, Limei & Li, Ziyuan & Wang, Guoyong & Zhao, Lei & Yan, Yuying, 2021. "A review of phase change heat transfer in shape-stabilized phase change materials (ss-PCMs) based on porous supports for thermal energy storage," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 135(C).
    4. Hamidi, E. & Ganesan, P.B. & Sharma, R.K. & Yong, K.W., 2023. "Computational study of heat transfer enhancement using porous foams with phase change materials: A comparative review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 176(C).
    5. Dubey, Abhayjeet kumar & Sun, Jingyi & Choudhary, Tushar & Dash, Madhusmita & Rakshit, Dibakar & Ansari, M Zahid & Ramakrishna, Seeram & Liu, Yong & Nanda, Himansu Sekhar, 2023. "Emerging phase change materials with improved thermal efficiency for a clean and sustainable environment: An approach towards net zero," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 182(C).
    6. Khan, Mohammed Mumtaz A. & Saidur, R. & Al-Sulaiman, Fahad A., 2017. "A review for phase change materials (PCMs) in solar absorption refrigeration systems," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 76(C), pages 105-137.
    7. Huang, Xiang & Alva, Guruprasad & Jia, Yuting & Fang, Guiyin, 2017. "Morphological characterization and applications of phase change materials in thermal energy storage: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 72(C), pages 128-145.
    8. Aramesh, M. & Shabani, B., 2022. "Metal foam-phase change material composites for thermal energy storage: A review of performance parameters," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 155(C).
    9. Kenisarin, Murat & Mahkamov, Khamid, 2016. "Passive thermal control in residential buildings using phase change materials," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 55(C), pages 371-398.
    10. Nassima Radouane, 2022. "A Comprehensive Review of Composite Phase Change Materials (cPCMs) for Thermal Management Applications, Including Manufacturing Processes, Performance, and Applications," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(21), pages 1-28, November.
    11. Kumar, Ashish & Saha, Sandip K., 2020. "Experimental and numerical study of latent heat thermal energy storage with high porosity metal matrix under intermittent heat loads," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 263(C).
    12. Wang, Guohui & Yang, Yanan & Wang, Shuxin, 2020. "Ocean thermal energy application technologies for unmanned underwater vehicles: A comprehensive review," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 278(C).
    13. Soares, N. & Bastos, J. & Pereira, L. Dias & Soares, A. & Amaral, A.R. & Asadi, E. & Rodrigues, E. & Lamas, F.B. & Monteiro, H. & Lopes, M.A.R. & Gaspar, A.R., 2017. "A review on current advances in the energy and environmental performance of buildings towards a more sustainable built environment," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 77(C), pages 845-860.
    14. Shittu, Samson & Li, Guiqiang & Zhao, Xudong & Ma, Xiaoli, 2020. "Review of thermoelectric geometry and structure optimization for performance enhancement," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 268(C).
    15. Seddegh, Saeid & Wang, Xiaolin & Henderson, Alan D. & Xing, Ziwen, 2015. "Solar domestic hot water systems using latent heat energy storage medium: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 49(C), pages 517-533.
    16. Li, Zhi & Lu, Yiji & Huang, Rui & Chang, Jinwei & Yu, Xiaonan & Jiang, Ruicheng & Yu, Xiaoli & Roskilly, Anthony Paul, 2021. "Applications and technological challenges for heat recovery, storage and utilisation with latent thermal energy storage," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 283(C).
    17. Kahwaji, Samer & Johnson, Michel B. & Kheirabadi, Ali C. & Groulx, Dominic & White, Mary Anne, 2018. "A comprehensive study of properties of paraffin phase change materials for solar thermal energy storage and thermal management applications," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 162(C), pages 1169-1182.
    18. Yang, Xiaohu & Feng, Shangsheng & Zhang, Qunli & Chai, Yue & Jin, Liwen & Lu, Tian Jian, 2017. "The role of porous metal foam on the unidirectional solidification of saturating fluid for cold storage," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 194(C), pages 508-521.
    19. Zeinelabdein, Rami & Omer, Siddig & Gan, Guohui, 2018. "Critical review of latent heat storage systems for free cooling in buildings," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 82(P3), pages 2843-2868.
    20. Nie, Binjian & Palacios, Anabel & Zou, Boyang & Liu, Jiaxu & Zhang, Tongtong & Li, Yunren, 2020. "Review on phase change materials for cold thermal energy storage applications," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 134(C).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:rensus:v:219:y:2025:i:c:s1364032125005246. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/600126/description#description .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.