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Development of ammonia-biodiesel fueled agricultural tractor: Aspects of retrofitting a compression ignition engine to direct ammonia injection

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  • Pasternak, Michał
  • Przybyła, Grzegorz
  • Siddareddy, Reddy
  • Lewandowski, Michał
  • Bjørgen, Karl
  • Mauss, Fabian
  • Nadimi, Ebrahim
  • Peczkis, Grzegorz
  • Zhou, Min-min
  • Adamczyk, Wojciech

Abstract

The automotive industry has shown growing interest in ammonia as a carbon-free fuel, which holds potential for mitigating the greenhouse effect. Nonetheless, adapting current combustion engines to use ammonia necessitates prior modifications. This paper introduces a retrofitting technique for converting an existing compression ignition engine into one powered by a direct injection of ammonia and biodiesel. The development results from collaboration between Polish and Norwegian research teams as part of the ACTIVATE project (Ammonia as carbon-free fuel for internal combustion engine-driven agricultural vehicles). The new technology is grounded on experimental and numerical research involving a single-cylinder engine installed in a small agricultural tractor. Biodiesel was directly injected to initiate ammonia combustion. Experimental activities were performed on engine test benches and a chassis dynamometer, complemented by 0D and 3D simulations using the stochastic reactor model and CFD code Converge, respectively. A comprehensive exploration of engine operating conditions and fuel injection strategies was undertaken experimentally and numerically to assess the potential benefits and drawbacks of various designs. A segment of the research focused on analyzing nitrous oxide formation, given its significant impact on global warming. The investigations resulted in a method for combusting ammonia with biodiesel as an ignition enhancer. It was determined that maintaining a stable engine operation in a tractor under real driving scenarios requires 47% of the energy sourced from ammonia. Optimal engine performance occurs when ammonia and biodiesel are injected near the end of the compression stroke, closely followed by the ignition promoter. A prolonged interval between these injections impairs combustion efficiency and raises ammonia emissions. The integrated numerical and experimental research resulted in a demonstration tractor fueled by directly injected biodiesel and ammonia.

Suggested Citation

  • Pasternak, Michał & Przybyła, Grzegorz & Siddareddy, Reddy & Lewandowski, Michał & Bjørgen, Karl & Mauss, Fabian & Nadimi, Ebrahim & Peczkis, Grzegorz & Zhou, Min-min & Adamczyk, Wojciech, 2025. "Development of ammonia-biodiesel fueled agricultural tractor: Aspects of retrofitting a compression ignition engine to direct ammonia injection," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 327(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:energy:v:327:y:2025:i:c:s0360544225018973
    DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2025.136255
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Doppalapudi, A.T. & Azad, A.K. & Khan, M.M.K., 2023. "Advanced strategies to reduce harmful nitrogen-oxide emissions from biodiesel fueled engine," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 174(C).
    2. Kalghatgi, Gautam, 2018. "Is it really the end of internal combustion engines and petroleum in transport?," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 225(C), pages 965-974.
    3. Kan, Xiang & Wei, Liping & Li, Xian & Li, Han & Zhou, Dezhi & Yang, Wenming & Wang, Chi-Hwa, 2020. "Effects of the three dual-fuel strategies on performance and emissions of a biodiesel engine," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 262(C).
    4. Nadimi, Ebrahim & Przybyła, Grzegorz & Løvås, Terese & Peczkis, Grzegorz & Adamczyk, Wojciech, 2023. "Experimental and numerical study on direct injection of liquid ammonia and its injection timing in an ammonia-biodiesel dual injection engine," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 284(C).
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