Key Economic Factors Influencing Children's Educational Outcomes: A Case Study of Otjiwarongo District, Namibia

This study examines the association between household economic conditions and children’s educational outcomes in the Otjiwarongo District of Namibia, with particular emphasis on grade progression. The study employed a convergent mixed-methods design involving a quantitative survey of 159 mothers, complemented by semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Spearman’s rank-order correlations, and ordinal logistic regression, while qualitative data were analysed through thematic analysis. Findings indicate that household income, maternal educational attainment, household composition, and mothers’ economic empowerment are significantly associated with children’s grade progression. Children from high-income households showed greater odds of being in advanced grade categories relative to children from low-income households (OR = 3.12, p = 0.008), while maternal tertiary education was positively associated with higher grade placement (OR = 2.12, p = 0.029). Conversely, an increase in the number of school-age children within households was associated with reduced odds of higher grade progression (OR = 0.74, p = 0.044). The Mothers’ Economic Empowerment (MEE) Index remained independently associated with grade progression after adjusting for socioeconomic covariates (OR = 1.42, p = 0.040). Regression diagnostic tests indicated acceptable model adequacy, including satisfactory multicollinearity thresholds and no significant violation of the proportional odds assumption. Qualitative findings further contextualised the statistical associations by illustrating how income insecurity, informal employment, debt burdens, and economic shocks shape educational participation and continuity. Rather than demonstrating direct causal effects, the findings highlight important socioeconomic associations that contribute to educational inequalities within the Namibian context. The study situates these findings within broader African debates on educational inequality, poverty, gendered economic vulnerability, and household resource distribution.