Mapping hydrogen-related employment patterns: A multi-sectoral analysis of recruitment data in three Scandinavian countries

This paper examines how emerging employment patterns reflect the early-stage structuring of the hydrogen economy in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. Drawing on socio-technical systems theory and cluster analysis, we analyze 3,055 hydrogen-related job postings collected between August 2023 and September 2024. By applying unsupervised machine learning to categorize region–sector–job role combinations, we identify six distinct employment clusters, and four additional clusters focused specifically on engineering roles. Our findings show that hydrogen-related recruitment activity builds on existing industrial capabilities, regional specializations, and institutional frameworks. Norway’s recruitment patterns align with its offshore energy and engineering sectors; Denmark exhibits a capital-concentrated, research-driven configuration; and Sweden’s activity is centered on incumbent utilities integrating hydrogen into energy infrastructure. Engineering roles dominate across countries, yet the distribution of technical competencies and actor types varies significantly. This study contributes methodologically to sustainability transitions research by demonstrating how recruitment data can serve as early indicators of evolving socio-technical configurations. We show how cluster analysis can trace emerging employment structures and capture the spatial, sectoral, and competence dimensions of technological change. These insights contribute to the empirical study of sustainability transitions by revealing how national industrial structures, actor configurations, and sectoral linkages shape early labor market dynamics in the hydrogen economy.Author summary: As countries pursue greener economies, hydrogen is expected to play a key role in decarbonizing energy, transport, and industry. But it remains unclear how this transition affects employment—where new jobs emerge, what skills are in demand, and which organizations are involved. In this study, we analyzed over 3,000 job advertisements in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark to examine how hydrogen-related employment is beginning to take shape. The results show that most new jobs are concentrated in regions with strong existing industries and focus on engineering, project development, and research. National patterns differ: Norway builds on offshore energy and engineering firms, Sweden’s recruitment is led by utility companies, and Denmark emphasizes research and technology development in the capital region. Our findings show that job data can offer early insights into how new technologies become embedded in existing industrial and regional systems—and provide valuable input for workforce planning in sustainability transitions.