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A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of End-of-Life Scenarios for Light Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of an Electric Moped

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  • Santiago Eduardo

    (Sustainable Technologies Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, Bochum University of Applied Sciences, 44801 Bochum, Germany)

  • Erik Alexander Recklies

    (Sustainable Technologies Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, Bochum University of Applied Sciences, 44801 Bochum, Germany)

  • Malina Nikolic

    (Sustainable Technologies Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, Bochum University of Applied Sciences, 44801 Bochum, Germany)

  • Semih Severengiz

    (Sustainable Technologies Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, Bochum University of Applied Sciences, 44801 Bochum, Germany)

Abstract

This study analyses the greenhouse gas reduction potential of different end-of-life (EoL) strategies based on a case study of light electric vehicles (LEVs). Using a shared electric moped scooter as a reference, four EoL scenarios are evaluated in a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA). The modelling of the scenarios combines different R-strategies (e.g., recycling, reusing, and repurposing) regarding both the vehicle itself and the battery. German and EU regulations for vehicle and battery disposal are incorporated, as well as EU directives such as the Battery Product Pass. The global warming potential (GWP 100 ) of the production and EoL life cycle stages ranges from 644 to 1025 kg CO 2 eq among the four analysed scenarios. Landfill treatment led to the highest GWP 100 , with 1.47 times higher emissions than those of the base scenario (status quo treatment following EU directives), while increasing component reuse and repurposing the battery cells achieved GWP 100 reductions of 2.8% and 7.8%, respectively. Overall, the importance of implementing sustainable EoL strategies for LEVs is apparent. To achieve this, a product design that facilitates EoL material and component separation is essential as well as the development of political and economic frameworks. This paper promotes enhancing the circularity of LEVs by combining the LCA of EoL strategies with eco-design considerations.

Suggested Citation

  • Santiago Eduardo & Erik Alexander Recklies & Malina Nikolic & Semih Severengiz, 2025. "A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of End-of-Life Scenarios for Light Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of an Electric Moped," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(15), pages 1-23, July.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:15:p:6681-:d:1707164
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Amelie Ewert & Mascha Brost & Christine Eisenmann & Sylvia Stieler, 2020. "Small and Light Electric Vehicles: An Analysis of Feasible Transport Impacts and Opportunities for Improved Urban Land Use," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 12(19), pages 1-17, October.
    2. López, A.I. & Ramírez-Díaz, A. & Castilla-Rodríguez, I. & Gurriarán, J. & Mendez-Perez, J.A., 2023. "Wind farm energy surplus storage solution with second-life vehicle batteries in isolated grids," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 173(C).
    3. Nora Schelte & Semih Severengiz & Jaron Schünemann & Sebastian Finke & Oskar Bauer & Matthias Metzen, 2021. "Life Cycle Assessment on Electric Moped Scooter Sharing," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(15), pages 1-20, July.
    4. Heymans, Catherine & Walker, Sean B. & Young, Steven B. & Fowler, Michael, 2014. "Economic analysis of second use electric vehicle batteries for residential energy storage and load-levelling," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 71(C), pages 22-30.
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