IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jsusta/v16y2024i5p1965-d1347104.html

A Formulation Model for Computations to Estimate the Lifecycle Cost of NiZn Batteries

Author

Listed:
  • Ashwani Kumar Malviya

    (Research & Innovation Projects, AITEC, Parque Tecnológico, C/Charles Robert Dawrin, 20, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain)

  • Mehdi Zarehparast Malekzadeh

    (Research & Innovation Projects, AITEC, Parque Tecnológico, C/Charles Robert Dawrin, 20, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain)

  • Francisco Enrique Santarremigia

    (Research & Innovation Projects, AITEC, Parque Tecnológico, C/Charles Robert Dawrin, 20, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain)

  • Gemma Dolores Molero

    (Research & Innovation Projects, AITEC, Parque Tecnológico, C/Charles Robert Dawrin, 20, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain)

  • Ignacio Villalba-Sanchis

    (Institute of Concrete Science and Technology (ICITECH), Universitat Politècnica de València, 46022 Valencia, Spain)

  • Victor Yepes

    (Institute of Concrete Science and Technology (ICITECH), Universitat Politècnica de València, 46022 Valencia, Spain)

Abstract

The increasing demand for electricity and the electrification of various sectors require more efficient and sustainable energy storage solutions. This paper focuses on the novel rechargeable nickel–zinc battery (RNZB) technology, which has the potential to replace the conventional nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd), in terms of safety, performance, environmental impact, and cost. The paper aims to provide a comprehensive and systematic analysis of RNZBs by modeling their lifecycle cost (LCC) from cradle to grave. This paper also applies this LCC model to estimate costs along the RNZB’s lifecycle in both cases: per kilogram of battery mass and per kilowatt hour of energy released. This model is shown to be reliable by comparing its results with costs provided by recognized software used for LCC analysis. A comparison of LCCs for three widely used battery technologies: lead–acid, Li-ion LFP, and NMC batteries, which can be market competitors of NiZn, is also provided. The study concludes that the NiZn battery was found to be the cheapest throughout its entire lifecycle, with NiZn Formulation 1 being the cheapest option. The cost per unit of energy released was also found to be the lowest for NiZn batteries. The current research pain points are the availability of data for nickel–zinc batteries, which are in the research and development phase, while other battery types are already widely used in energy storage. This paper recommends taking into account the location factor of infrastructures, cost of machinery, storage, number of suppliers of raw materials, amount of materials transported in each shipment, and the value of materials recovered after the battery recycling process to further reduce costs throughout the battery’s lifecycle. This LCC model can be also used for other energy storage technologies and serve as objective functions for optimization in further developments.

Suggested Citation

  • Ashwani Kumar Malviya & Mehdi Zarehparast Malekzadeh & Francisco Enrique Santarremigia & Gemma Dolores Molero & Ignacio Villalba-Sanchis & Victor Yepes, 2024. "A Formulation Model for Computations to Estimate the Lifecycle Cost of NiZn Batteries," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 16(5), pages 1-22, February.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:16:y:2024:i:5:p:1965-:d:1347104
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/5/1965/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/5/1965/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Maria Cecília Costa Lima & Luana Pereira Pontes & Andrea Sarmento Maia Vasconcelos & Washington de Araujo Silva Junior & Kunlin Wu, 2022. "Economic Aspects for Recycling of Used Lithium-Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(6), pages 1-19, March.
    2. Rahman, Md Mustafizur & Oni, Abayomi Olufemi & Gemechu, Eskinder & Kumar, Amit, 2021. "The development of techno-economic models for the assessment of utility-scale electro-chemical battery storage systems," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 283(C).
    3. He, Guannan & Ciez, Rebecca & Moutis, Panayiotis & Kar, Soummya & Whitacre, Jay F., 2020. "The economic end of life of electrochemical energy storage," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 273(C).
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Ashwani Kumar Malviya & Mehdi Zarehparast Malekzadeh & Francisco Enrique Santarremigia & Gemma Dolores Molero & Ignacio Villalba Sanchis & Pablo Martínez Fernández & Víctor Yepes, 2024. "Optimization of Life Cycle Cost and Environmental Impact Functions of NiZn Batteries by Using Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimization (MOPSO)," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 16(15), pages 1-28, July.
    2. Smolenski, Robert & Szczesniak, Pawel & Drozdz, Wojciech & Kasperski, Lukasz, 2022. "Advanced metering infrastructure and energy storage for location and mitigation of power quality disturbances in the utility grid with high penetration of renewables," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 157(C).
    3. Ulises Martín Casado & Facundo Ignacio Altuna & Luis Alejandro Miccio, 2025. "A Review on the Role of Crosslinked Polymers in Renewable Energy: Complex Network Analysis of Innovations in Sustainability," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(10), pages 1-31, May.
    4. Jiyong Li & Zeyi Hua & Lin Tian & Peiwen Chen & Hao Dong, 2024. "Optimal Capacity Allocation for Life Cycle Multiobjective Integrated Energy Systems Considering Capacity Tariffs and Eco-Indicator 99," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 16(20), pages 1-22, October.
    5. Pusceddu, Elian & Zakeri, Behnam & Castagneto Gissey, Giorgio, 2021. "Synergies between energy arbitrage and fast frequency response for battery energy storage systems," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 283(C).
    6. Aditiya, H.B. & Mahlia, T.M.I. & Huang, Z., 2026. "Scaling green hydrogen: Production, storage, techno-economics and global perspectives," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 226(PD).
    7. Bianca Ifeoma Chigbu & Ikechukwu Umejesi, 2024. "Unlocking Economic and Environmental Gains Through Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling for Electric Vehicles," Resources, MDPI, vol. 13(12), pages 1-22, November.
    8. Zhu, He & Hu, Jiayao & Yang, Ying, 2025. "Towards a circular supply chain for retired electric vehicle batteries: A systematic literature review," International Journal of Production Economics, Elsevier, vol. 282(C).
    9. Wu, Di & Ma, Xu & Balducci, Patrick & Bhatnagar, Dhruv, 2021. "An economic assessment of behind-the-meter photovoltaics paired with batteries on the Hawaiian Islands," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 286(C).
    10. Méndez, Carlos & Contestabile, Marcello & Bicer, Yusuf, 2025. "Driving toward hydrogen mobility: A life cycle cost analysis of conventional, electric, and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in Qatar," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 330(C).
    11. Chao Zuo & Xuqiang Yan & Ziyi Chen & Wenbo Wei & Meina Gao & Yuting Ling & Fenping Zhu & Bei Liu & Hongwei Zhou & Dong Xu & Mengjun Zhang, 2025. "Factors influencing residents’ inclination towards engaging in the recycling of electric vehicle batteries," Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 12(1), pages 1-11, December.
    12. Collath, Nils & Cornejo, Martin & Engwerth, Veronika & Hesse, Holger & Jossen, Andreas, 2023. "Increasing the lifetime profitability of battery energy storage systems through aging aware operation," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 348(C).
    13. Tena Bujas & Marija Koričan & Manuela Vukić & Vladimir Soldo & Nikola Vladimir & Ailong Fan, 2022. "Review of Energy Consumption by the Fish Farming and Processing Industry in Croatia and the Potential for Zero-Emissions Aquaculture," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(21), pages 1-26, November.
    14. Xuan, Tao & Cheng, Xusheng & Wang, Liwei, 2025. "Comparative analysis of environmental and economic assessment of batteries for stationary applications," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 334(C).
    15. Schleifer, Anna H. & Murphy, Caitlin A. & Cole, Wesley J. & Denholm, Paul, 2022. "Exploring the design space of PV-plus-battery system configurations under evolving grid conditions," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 308(C).
    16. Khaled Alawasa & Adib Allahham & Ala’aldeen Al-Halhouli & Mohammed Al-Mahmodi & Musab Hamdan & Yara Khawaja & Hani Muhsen & Saqer Alja’afreh & Abdullah Al-Odienat & Ali Al-Dmour & Ahmad Aljaafreh & Ah, 2025. "Techno-Socio-Economic Framework for Energy Storage System Selection in Jordan," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(12), pages 1-26, June.
    17. María Blecua-de-Pedro & Maryori C. Díaz-Ramírez, 2021. "Assessment of Potential Barriers to the Implementation of an Innovative AB-FB Energy Storage System under a Sustainable Perspective," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(19), pages 1-16, October.
    18. Lin, Mengke & Shen, Jianjian & Guo, Xihai & Ge, Linsong & Lü, Quan, 2025. "Comparison of pumping station and electrochemical energy storage enhancement mode for hydro-wind-photovoltaic hybrid systems," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 315(C).
    19. Park, Sung-Won & Yu, Jung-Un & Lee, Jin-Wook & Son, Sung-Yong, 2024. "A comprehensive review of battery-based power service applications considering degradation: Research status and model integration," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 374(C).
    20. Luana Pontes & Tatiane Costa & Amanda Souza & Nicolau Dantas & Andrea Vasconcelos & Guilherme Rissi & Roberto Dias & Mohamed A. Mohamed & Pierluigi Siano & Manoel Marinho, 2023. "Operational Data Analysis of a Battery Energy Storage System to Support Wind Energy Generation," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(3), pages 1-20, February.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:16:y:2024:i:5:p:1965-:d:1347104. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager The email address of this maintainer does not seem to be valid anymore. Please ask MDPI Indexing Manager to update the entry or send us the correct address (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.