Geographies of Frontline Workers: Gender, Race, and Commuting in New York City

The COVID-19 pandemic amplified social, economic, and environmental inequalities in American cities, including inequities in commuting and access to employment. Frontline workers—those who had to work on site during the pandemic—experienced these inequalities in every aspect of their daily lives. We examine the labor force characteristics and commuting of frontline workers in New York City with a focus on gender and race/ethnic disparities in wages and commuting modes and times. Using Census PUMS microdata for a sample of New York City residents in the 2015–2019 period, we identify frontline workers from detailed industry and occupation codes and compare characteristics of frontline workers with those of essential workers who could work remotely. The data highlight wide disparities between frontline and remote workers. Minority men and women are concentrated in the frontline workforce. The residential geographies of frontline and remote workers differ greatly, with the former concentrated in low- and moderate- income areas distant from work sites and with long commute times. Compared to men, women frontline workers rely heavily on public transit to commute and transit dependence is highest among Black and Latina women. Low-wage employment, long commute times, and transit dependence intersected to increase minority women’s economic and social vulnerability during the pandemic.