IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jresou/v14y2025i6p89-d1664947.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Optimization of Blighia sapida Seed Oil Biodiesel Production: A Sustainable Approach to Renewable Biofuels

Author

Listed:
  • Oyetola Ogunkunle

    (Department of Mechanical, Bioresources and Biomedical Engineering, Science Campus, University of South Africa, Florida 1710, South Africa)

  • Christopher C. Enweremadu

    (Department of Mechanical, Bioresources and Biomedical Engineering, Science Campus, University of South Africa, Florida 1710, South Africa)

Abstract

This study aims to optimize the production of biodiesel from Blighia sapida (Ackee) seed oil, a non-edible and underutilized feedstock, as a sustainable alternative to conventional fossil-based diesel fuels. The transesterification of Blighia sapida seed oil was optimized using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with a Box–Behnken experimental design. Three process variables, reaction time, temperature, and methanol-to-oil molar ratio, were selected for modeling biodiesel yield. The resulting biodiesel was characterized by physicochemical properties in accordance with ASTM D6751 standards. The optimal transesterification conditions were found to be 60 min, 60 °C, and a methanol-to-oil ratio of 3:1, yielding 98.36% biodiesel. This represents an improvement over the unoptimized yield of 94.3% at a 6:1 molar ratio. Experimental validation produced an average yield of 97.49%, confirming the model’s reliability. The produced biodiesel exhibited a kinematic viscosity of 4.02 mm 2 /s, cetane number of 54.6, flash point of 138 °C, and acid value of 0.421 mg KOH/g, which are all within the ASTM D6751 standard limits. This work is among the first to systematically optimize Blighia sapida biodiesel production using RSM. The results demonstrate its viability as a clean-burning, high-quality biodiesel fuel with promising fuel properties and environmental benefits. Its high cetane number and low methanol requirement enhance its combustion performance and production efficiency, positioning Blighia sapida as a competitive feedstock for sustainable biofuel development.

Suggested Citation

  • Oyetola Ogunkunle & Christopher C. Enweremadu, 2025. "Optimization of Blighia sapida Seed Oil Biodiesel Production: A Sustainable Approach to Renewable Biofuels," Resources, MDPI, vol. 14(6), pages 1-26, May.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jresou:v:14:y:2025:i:6:p:89-:d:1664947
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9276/14/6/89/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9276/14/6/89/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Silalertruksa, Thapat & Gheewala, Shabbir H., 2012. "Environmental sustainability assessment of palm biodiesel production in Thailand," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 43(1), pages 306-314.
    2. Rincón, L.E. & Jaramillo, J.J. & Cardona, C.A., 2014. "Comparison of feedstocks and technologies for biodiesel production: An environmental and techno-economic evaluation," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 69(C), pages 479-487.
    3. Verma, Puneet & Sharma, M.P., 2016. "Review of process parameters for biodiesel production from different feedstocks," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 1063-1071.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. M'Arimi, M.M. & Mecha, C.A. & Kiprop, A.K. & Ramkat, R., 2020. "Recent trends in applications of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) in bioenergy production: Review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 121(C).
    2. Suria Tarigan & Iput Pradiko & Nuzul H. Darlan & Yudha Kristanto, 2025. "Carbon Footprint Comparison of Rapeseed and Palm Oil: Impact of Land Use and Fertilizers," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(4), pages 1-13, February.
    3. Ambat, Indu & Srivastava, Varsha & Sillanpää, Mika, 2018. "Recent advancement in biodiesel production methodologies using various feedstock: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 90(C), pages 356-369.
    4. Shu, Qing & Zou, Wenqiang & He, Jiangfan & Lesmana, Herry & Zhang, Caixia & Zou, Laixi & Wang, Yao, 2019. "Preparation of the F−-SO42-/MWCNTs catalyst and kinetic studies of the biodiesel production via esterification reaction of oleic acid and methanol," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 135(C), pages 836-845.
    5. Uusitalo, V. & Väisänen, S. & Havukainen, J. & Havukainen, M. & Soukka, R. & Luoranen, M., 2014. "Carbon footprint of renewable diesel from palm oil, jatropha oil and rapeseed oil," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 69(C), pages 103-113.
    6. Morais, Keli C.C. & Conceição, Daniele & Vargas, José V.C. & Mitchell, David A. & Mariano, André B. & Ordonez, Juan C. & Galli-Terasawa, Lygia Vitoria & Kava, Vanessa M., 2021. "Enhanced microalgae biomass and lipid output for increased biodiesel productivity," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 163(C), pages 138-145.
    7. Lobo, Wyvirlany V. & Paes, Orlando A.R.L. & Sousa, Airi dos S. & Pinheiro, William & Sousa, Cesar A.S. & de Araújo Bezerra, Jaqueline & Novita, Lidya & Cheng, I. Francis & de Souza, Luiz K.C. & de Fre, 2025. "Application of sulfonated passion fruit seeds as a heterogeneous catalyst in the esterification of oleic and levulinic acids: Optimization of reaction parameters," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 241(C).
    8. Xu, H. & Lee, U. & Wang, M., 2020. "Life-cycle energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of palm fatty acid distillate derived renewable diesel," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 134(C).
    9. Eldiehy, Khalifa S.H. & Gohain, Minakshi & Daimary, Niran & Borah, Doljit & Mandal, Manabendra & Deka, Dhanapati, 2022. "Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) leaves: A novel source for a highly efficient heterogeneous base catalyst for biodiesel production using waste soybean cooking oil and Scenedesmus obliquus oil," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 191(C), pages 888-901.
    10. Marcus Keogh-Brown & Henning Tarp Jensen & Bhavani Shankar & Sanjay Basu & Soledad Cuevas & Alan Dangour & Shabbir H. Gheewala & Rosemary Green & Edward Joy & Nalitra Thaiprasert & Richard Smith, 2017. "An integrated macroeconomic, demographic and health modelling framework for palm oil policies in Thailand," EcoMod2017 10569, EcoMod.
    11. di Bitonto, Luigi & Pastore, Carlo, 2019. "Metal hydrated-salts as efficient and reusable catalysts for pre-treating waste cooking oils and animal fats for an effective production of biodiesel," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 143(C), pages 1193-1200.
    12. Oza, Suvik & Kodgire, Pravin & Kachhwaha, Surendra Singh & Lam, Man Kee & Yusup, Suzana & Chai, Yee Ho & Rokhum, Samuel Lalthazuala, 2024. "A review on sustainable and scalable biodiesel production using ultra-sonication technology," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 226(C).
    13. Janbarari, Seyed Reza & Ahmadian Behrooz, Hesam, 2020. "Optimal and robust synthesis of the biodiesel production process using waste cooking oil from different feedstocks," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 198(C).
    14. Mohammed S. Almuhayawi & Elhagag A. Hassan & Saad Almasaudi & Nidal Zabermawi & Esam I. Azhar & Azhar Najjar & Khalil Alkuwaity & Turki S. Abujamel & Turki Alamri & Steve Harakeh, 2023. "Biodiesel Production through Rhodotorula toruloides Lipids and Utilization of De-Oiled Biomass for Congo Red Removal," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(18), pages 1-22, September.
    15. Jawaharraj, Kalimuthu & Karpagam, Rathinasamy & Ashokkumar, Balasubramaniem & Pratheeba, Chanda Nagarajan & Varalakshmi, Perumal, 2016. "Enhancement of biodiesel potential in cyanobacteria: using agro-industrial wastes for fuel production, properties and acetyl CoA carboxylase D (accD) gene expression of Synechocystis sp.NN," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 98(C), pages 72-77.
    16. Hoang, Anh Tuan & Tabatabaei, Meisam & Aghbashlo, Mortaza & Carlucci, Antonio Paolo & Ölçer, Aykut I. & Le, Anh Tuan & Ghassemi, Abbas, 2021. "Rice bran oil-based biodiesel as a promising renewable fuel alternative to petrodiesel: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 135(C).
    17. Trifoi, Ancuţa Roxana & Agachi, Paul Şerban & Pap, Timea, 2016. "Glycerol acetals and ketals as possible diesel additives. A review of their synthesis protocols," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 804-814.
    18. Chen, Ying-Chen & Lin, Dai-Ying & Chen, Bing-Hung, 2019. "Metasilicate-based catalyst prepared from natural diatomaceous earth for biodiesel production," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 138(C), pages 1042-1050.
    19. Esteves, Elisa M.M. & Brigagão, George V. & Morgado, Cláudia R.V., 2021. "Multi-objective optimization of integrated crop-livestock system for biofuels production: A life-cycle approach," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 152(C).
    20. Praveena, V. & Martin, Leenus Jesu & Matijošius, Jonas & Aloui, Fethi & Pugazhendhi, Arivalagan & Varuvel, Edwin Geo, 2024. "A systematic review on biofuel production and utilization from algae and waste feedstocks– a circular economy approach," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 192(C).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jresou:v:14:y:2025:i:6:p:89-:d:1664947. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.