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Managing the Belt and Road: Agency and development in Cambodia and Myanmar

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  • Calabrese, Linda
  • Cao, Yue

Abstract

Discussions on Chinese-financed and Chinese-built infrastructure projects, and more recently about the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), are often focused on China and fail to consider the role of the countries hosting these projects. Yet, host countries' dynamics are crucial to shaping the outcomes of BRI projects. This study investigates how the governments of developing countries in Southeast Asia leverage the BRI to achieve their own objectives. Through episode analysis based on literature and interviews conducted in Cambodia and Myanmar, we study the strategies deployed by these governments to influence the development of the BRI. We show that Cambodia uses strategies based on the principle of diversification, spreading infrastructure financing and implementation among a growing number of partners. We then show that the Myanmar government relies on impartiality to implement the proposed infrastructure projects and mitigate their risks. We link these strategies to the domestic contexts of Cambodia and Myanmar, discussing how these respond to the political setup of each country. This has important implications in terms of the narrative on the BRI, as it highlights the role of host country governments and of the domestic context in shaping outcomes. Our study fills a gap in the literature by providing a cross-country framework to understand how agency is deployed to achieve the desired outcomes in the context of the BRI, and more in general of infrastructure planning and implementation.

Suggested Citation

  • Calabrese, Linda & Cao, Yue, 2021. "Managing the Belt and Road: Agency and development in Cambodia and Myanmar," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 141(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:wdevel:v:141:y:2021:i:c:s0305750x20304241
    DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105297
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    Citations

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    Cited by:

    1. Linda Calabrese, 2024. "Diversifying Away from Extractives: The Belt and Road Initiative, Chinese Capital and Industrialisation in the Kyrgyz Republic," The European Journal of Development Research, Palgrave Macmillan;European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes (EADI), vol. 36(3), pages 601-638, June.
    2. Linda Calabrese & Rhys Jenkins & Lorena Lombardozzi, 2024. "The Belt and Road Initiative and Dynamics of Structural Transformation," The European Journal of Development Research, Palgrave Macmillan;European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes (EADI), vol. 36(3), pages 515-547, June.
    3. Ducruet, César & Guerrero, David, 2022. "Inland cities, maritime gateways, and international trade," Journal of Transport Geography, Elsevier, vol. 104(C).
    4. Schclarek, Alfredo & Xu, Jiajun & Amuchastegui, Pedro, 2022. "Panda bond financing of the Belt and Road Initiative: An analysis of monetary mechanisms and financial risks," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 61(C).
    5. Guanie Lim & Andrew Jia-Yi Kam, 2024. "Chinese Investment in Malaysia: (De)Industrialization amidst Greater Financial and Trade Connectivity," The European Journal of Development Research, Palgrave Macmillan;European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes (EADI), vol. 36(3), pages 571-600, June.
    6. César Ducruet & David Guerrero, 2022. "Inland cities, maritime gateways, and international trade," EconomiX Working Papers 2022-17, University of Paris Nanterre, EconomiX.
    7. Yang, Yuezhou, 2025. "Varieties of Chinese capital in African agriculture: A bounded improvisation analysis," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 195(C).
    8. Alves, Ana Cristina & Gong, Xue & Li, Mingjiang, 2023. "The BRI: A new development cooperation paradigm in the making? Unpacking China’s infrastructure cooperation along the Maritime Silk Road," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 169(C).
    9. Baldakova, Oyuna & Oreglia, Elisa, 2025. "Beyond geopolitics: Agency and modularity in mobile telecommunications in Kazakhstan," Telecommunications Policy, Elsevier, vol. 49(2).
    10. Dragomirescu-Gaina, Catalin & Fassas, Athanasios P. & Philippas, Dionisis, 2024. "A Chinese clout on energy exports some countries cannot shake off," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 134(C).
    11. Yang, Yuezhou, 2025. "Varieties of Chinese capital in African agriculture: a bounded improvisation analysis," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 128300, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library.
    12. Coenen, Johanna & Newig, Jens & Meyfroidt, Patrick, 2022. "Environmental governance of a Belt and Road project in Montenegro – National agency and external influences," Land Use Policy, Elsevier, vol. 119(C).
    13. César Ducruet & David Guerrero, 2022. "Inland cities, maritime gateways and international trade," Post-Print hal-03764224, HAL.
    14. Fan, Di & Zhang, Ya’nan & Huang, Xinli & Su, Yiyi, 2023. "Varieties of institutional systems, the belt-road initiative, and the patterned investment flows," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 32(4).
    15. Chukiat Chaiboonsri & Anuphak Saosaovaphak & Paponsun Eakkapun & Soumya Chatter, 2026. "The impact of infrastructure sustainable development efficiency on economies: the case of selected ASEAN countries," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 28(2), pages 5273-5291, February.

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