Two-stage defending framework for typhoon-resilient distribution energy systems: Integrating wind–rain–terrain cascading failures in urban microclimates

The synergy between energy systems and resilient city development requires the operation of adaptive grids capable of withstanding extreme hazards, particularly tropical cyclones. Traditional single-factor models fall short in addressing the spatial–temporal interdependencies of wind, rain, and micro-terrain, which is a crucial gap in current approaches. This paper highlights the increasing need to enhance the resilience of distribution networks by considering the coupling effects of wind, rain, and terrain. We propose a ridge identification algorithm that adjusts wind speeds based on micro-topography. This corrected wind field is then used to inform precipitation patterns via the TCR model, while a 2D hydrodynamic model is employed to assess water levels at network nodes. By combining the wind and rain scenarios, we can accurately evaluate the real-time reliability of the network during tropical cyclones, taking into account the influence of surface vegetation. To further enhance resilience, we develop a two-stage stochastic model for emergency energy planning. The first stage focuses on pre-disaster emergency power supply (EPS) placement, and the second stage addresses EPS dispatching and network reconfiguration during disasters. Numerical simulations using realistic landfalling typhoons and terrain data from southeastern China show significant changes in fault distribution when wind–rain effects are incorporated, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed method in balancing economic benefits and worst-case scenarios.