Structure and evolution of global lead trade network: An industrial chain perspective

Lead resources are pivotal to national economic development and necessitate an examination of evolving global trade patterns to comprehend supply-demand dynamics and ensure supply chain stability. This study utilizes industrial chain perspectives and network analysis methods to establish global trade networks for lead ore, refined lead, and lead products, depicting their evolution and exploring the topology of the global lead trade network. The findings highlight consistent development in the global lead trade market since 2000, with robust growth in lead ore and refined lead trade, while trade in lead products has remained stable. The global lead trade network has undergone restructuring, revealing structural disparities among lead commodities that heighten diversity and complexity. A discernible trend toward densification is displayed, underscored by the agglomeration effect, reflecting enhancements in network connectivity, accessibility, and transmission efficiency. Conspicuous core-periphery structures exist, with a growing polarization effect in the lead ore trade network and balanced development in the refined lead and lead products trade network. Different countries play distinct roles, with the USA, China, Germany, the Netherlands, the UK, Belgium, and Italy consistently wielding significant control within the global lead trade network. The paper proposes policy implications for international trade cooperation and lead resource supply security based on these findings.