IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/agiwat/v322y2025ics037837742500664x.html

Revealing spatiotemporal patterns of fertilizer use and agricultural non-point source pollution in smallholder farming watersheds of mountainous and hilly areas

Author

Listed:
  • Lang, Lichen
  • Li, Zhihui
  • Zang, Hongkuan
  • Gao, Xing
  • Wu, Feng
  • Deng, Wang
  • Gao, Ya

Abstract

Mountainous and Hilly Areas (MHAs) are critical for ecological security, water resource conservation, and agricultural production. However, Agricultural Non-Point Source (ANPS) pollution in MHAs remains poorly understood due to the failure of existing models to capture the pronounced spatiotemporal heterogeneity of smallholder farming systems. This study focuses on the Yuanjiang River Basin, a representative subtropical, agriculture-intensive watershed in MHAs, to address both methodological gaps in simulating ANPS pollution and knowledge gaps in understanding its spatiotemporal characteristics. A customized version of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool Plus (SWAT+), referred to as SWAT+ -Smallholder Farming Systems (SWAT+-SFS), was developed to simulate variability within Hydrological Response Units (HRUs) in fertilization timing and dynamic postponement behavior in response to real-time rainfall and soil moisture. Three fertilization representation methods were compared: a conventional discrete-event scheme, a spatially split HRU approach, and the proposed SWAT+ -SFS method. While the split-HRU approach disrupted the hydrological unit structure, SWAT+ -SFS balanced computational efficiency and accuracy. Compared to the conventional discrete-event scheme, the SWAT+ -SFS model reduced overestimation of total nitrogen (TN) during the rainy season and substantially improved total phosphorus (TP) simulation, with average validation Kling–Gupta Efficiency (KGE) values increasing by 67.38 % for TN and 57.03 % for TP across monitoring stations. Simulations revealed that surface runoff-driven losses are significantly amplified by fragmented, prolonged fertilization schedules. This study underscores the critical need to account for complex human behaviors when understanding contemporary watershed hydrological and water quality processes, and highlights the importance of timely, science-based management guidance tailored to smallholder farming systems to support sustainable agriculture in MHAs.

Suggested Citation

  • Lang, Lichen & Li, Zhihui & Zang, Hongkuan & Gao, Xing & Wu, Feng & Deng, Wang & Gao, Ya, 2025. "Revealing spatiotemporal patterns of fertilizer use and agricultural non-point source pollution in smallholder farming watersheds of mountainous and hilly areas," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 322(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:agiwat:v:322:y:2025:i:c:s037837742500664x
    DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109950
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037837742500664X
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109950?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to

    for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Xiaolin Yang & Jinran Xiong & Taisheng Du & Xiaotang Ju & Yantai Gan & Sien Li & Longlong Xia & Yanjun Shen & Steven Pacenka & Tammo S. Steenhuis & Kadambot H. M. Siddique & Shaozhong Kang & Klaus But, 2024. "Diversifying crop rotation increases food production, reduces net greenhouse gas emissions and improves soil health," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-14, December.
    2. Zhao, Na & Chen, Kainan & Wu, Xiaoran & Zhang, Lili & Wang, Wei, 2024. "Cropland fragmentation change across China over the last two decades," Agricultural Systems, Elsevier, vol. 218(C).
    3. Wang, Xiaolong & Chen, Yuanquan & Sui, Peng & Yan, Peng & Yang, Xiaolei & Gao, Wangsheng, 2017. "Preliminary analysis on economic and environmental consequences of grain production on different farm sizes in North China Plain," Agricultural Systems, Elsevier, vol. 153(C), pages 181-189.
    4. Deborah Lawrence & Karen Vandecar, 2015. "Effects of tropical deforestation on climate and agriculture," Nature Climate Change, Nature, vol. 5(1), pages 27-36, January.
    5. Natasha Gilbert, 2010. "Mountain mining damages streams," Nature, Nature, vol. 466(7308), pages 806-806, August.
    6. repec:elg:eebook:22617_5 is not listed on IDEAS
    7. Nipuni S. Perera & Micheli D. P. Costa & Peter I. Macreadie & Melissa Wartman, 2025. "Trends in Market‐Based Blue Carbon Projects," Sustainable Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 33(3), pages 3377-3402, June.
    8. Emily C. Hollenbeck & Dov F. Sax, 2024. "Experimental evidence of climate change extinction risk in Neotropical montane epiphytes," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-11, December.
    9. Pushpa Tuppad & Narayanan Kannan & Raghavan Srinivasan & Colleen Rossi & Jeffrey Arnold, 2010. "Simulation of Agricultural Management Alternatives for Watershed Protection," Water Resources Management: An International Journal, Published for the European Water Resources Association (EWRA), Springer;European Water Resources Association (EWRA), vol. 24(12), pages 3115-3144, September.
    10. Thoumazeau, Alexis & Mettauer, Romane & Turinah, & Junedi, Heri & Baron, Victor & Chéron-Bessou, Cécile & Ollivier, Jean, 2024. "Effects of fertilization practices and understory on soil health and oil palm performances in smallholdings: An Indonesian case study," Agricultural Systems, Elsevier, vol. 213(C).
    11. Valentina Constanta Tudor & Paula Stoicea & Irina-Adriana Chiurciu & Elena Soare & Adina Magdalena Iorga & Toma Adrian Dinu & Livia David & Marius Mihai Micu & Dragos Ion Smedescu & Eduard Alexandru D, 2023. "The Use of Fertilizers and Pesticides in Wheat Production in the Main European Countries," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(4), pages 1-22, February.
    12. Gassman, Philip W. & Reyes, Manuel R. & Green, Colleen H. & Arnold, Jeffrey G., 2007. "The Soil and Water Assessment Tool: Historical Development, Applications, and Future Research Directions," ISU General Staff Papers 200701010800001027, Iowa State University, Department of Economics.
    13. Maé Guinet & Guillaume Adeux & Stéphane Cordeau & Emeric Courson & Romain Nandillon & Yaoyun Zhang & Nicolas Munier-Jolain, 2023. "Fostering temporal crop diversification to reduce pesticide use," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 14(1), pages 1-11, December.
    14. Deborah Lawrence & Karen Vandecar, 2015. "Erratum: Effects of tropical deforestation on climate and agriculture," Nature Climate Change, Nature, vol. 5(2), pages 174-174, February.
    15. Xu, Zhan & Liang, Zhengyuan & Cheng, Jiali & Groot, Jeroen C.J. & Zhang, Chaochun & Cong, Wen-Feng & Zhang, Fusuo & van der Werf, Wopke, 2024. "Comparing the sustainability of smallholder and business farms in the North China Plain; a case study in Quzhou," Agricultural Systems, Elsevier, vol. 216(C).
    16. Gang Liu & Lu Shen & Philippe Ciais & Xin Lin & Didier Hauglustaine & Xin Lan & Alexander J. Turner & Yi Xi & Yu Zhu & Shushi Peng, 2025. "Trends in the seasonal amplitude of atmospheric methane," Nature, Nature, vol. 641(8063), pages 660-665, May.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Yitao Li & Jun Ge & Hua Wu & Ronglin Tang & Yuanliang Cheng & Xiangyang Liu & Yi Wang & Wei Zhao & Caixia Gao & Si-Bo Duan & Qian Shi & Pei Leng & Enyu Zhao & Guangjian Yan & Xiaoning Song & Chenghu Z, 2025. "Amplified local cooling effect of forestation in warming Europe," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 16(1), pages 1-13, December.
    2. Christoph Albert & Paula Bustos & Jacopo Ponticelli, 2024. "The effects of climate change on labor and capital reallocation," Economics Working Papers 1887, Department of Economics and Business, Universitat Pompeu Fabra.
    3. Sanjeet Kumar & Ashok Mishra, 2015. "Critical Erosion Area Identification Based on Hydrological Response Unit Level for Effective Sedimentation Control in a River Basin," Water Resources Management: An International Journal, Published for the European Water Resources Association (EWRA), Springer;European Water Resources Association (EWRA), vol. 29(6), pages 1749-1765, April.
    4. Ablam Estel Apeti & Bossoma Doriane N’doua, 2023. "The impact of timber regulations on timber and timber product trade," Post-Print hal-04262489, HAL.
    5. Apeti, Ablam Estel & N’Doua, Bossoma Doriane, 2023. "The impact of timber regulations on timber and timber product trade," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 213(C).
    6. Magalhães de Oliveira, Gustavo & Sellare, Jorge & Cisneros, Elias & Börner, Jan, 2024. "Mind your language: Political signaling and deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon," Discussion Papers 333334, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF).
    7. Anna Chrysafi & Vili Virkki & Mika Jalava & Vilma Sandström & Johannes Piipponen & Miina Porkka & Steven J. Lade & Kelsey Mere & Lan Wang-Erlandsson & Laura Scherer & Lauren S. Andersen & Elena Bennet, 2022. "Quantifying Earth system interactions for sustainable food production via expert elicitation," Nature Sustainability, Nature, vol. 5(10), pages 830-842, October.
    8. Pal, Saheb & Ghosh, Indrajit, 2023. "Dynamics of a coupled socio-environmental model: An application to global CO2 emissions," Ecological Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 478(C).
    9. Araujo, Rafael & Assunção, Juliano & Bragança, Arthur, 2025. "Transportation infrastructure and deforestation in the Amazon," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 177(C).
    10. Jia Liu & Yunfeng Hu & Zhiming Feng & Chiwei Xiao, 2025. "A Review of Land Use and Land Cover in Mainland Southeast Asia over Three Decades (1990–2023)," Land, MDPI, vol. 14(4), pages 1-22, April.
    11. Yeboah, Emmanuel & Sarfo, Isaac & Zhu, Qiankun & Kwang, Clement & Puplampu, Dzifa Adimle & Nikoi, Ebenezer & Arthur, Isaac K. & Owusu, Alex Barimah & Fynn, Iris Ekua Mensimah & El Rhadiouini, Charafa , 2025. "Traceability and projected patterns of Africa’s land use systems and climate variability (1993–2053)," Land Use Policy, Elsevier, vol. 157(C).
    12. Jiang, Shouzheng & Wu, Jie & Wang, Zhihui & He, Ziling & Wang, Mingjun & Yao, Weiwei & Feng, Yu, 2023. "Spatiotemporal variations of cropland carbon sequestration and water loss across China," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 287(C).
    13. Christoph Albert & Paula Bustos & Jacopo Ponticelli, 2021. "The Effects of Climate Change on Labor and Capital Reallocation," NBER Working Papers 28995, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    14. Jingmeng Wang & Wei Li & Philippe Ciais & Laurent Z. X. Li & Jinfeng Chang & Daniel Goll & Thomas Gasser & Xiaomeng Huang & Narayanappa Devaraju & Olivier Boucher, 2021. "Global cooling induced by biophysical effects of bioenergy crop cultivation," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 12(1), pages 1-9, December.
    15. Raquel Fernández-González & Félix Puime Guillén & Otilia Manta & Simona Andreea Apostu & Valentina Vasile, 2022. "Forest Management Communities’ Participation in Bioenergy Production Initiatives: A Case Study for Galicia (Spain)," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(19), pages 1-17, October.
    16. Abhishek Lodh & Stuti Haldar, 2024. "Investigating the impact of tropical deforestation on Indian monsoon hydro-climate: a novel study using a regional climate model," Natural Hazards: Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards, Springer;International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards, vol. 120(12), pages 11399-11431, September.
    17. Hao Yu & Wei Song, 2023. "Research Progress on the Impact of Land Use Change on Soil Carbon Sequestration," Land, MDPI, vol. 12(1), pages 1-18, January.
    18. Crepin, Léa, 2024. "Do forest conservation policies undermine the soybean sector in the Brazilian Amazon? Evidence from the priority listing of municipalities," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 224(C).
    19. Charissa Bosma & Lars Hein, 2023. "The climate and land use change nexus: Implications for designing adaptation and conservation investment strategies in Sub‐Saharan Africa," Sustainable Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 31(5), pages 3811-3830, October.
    20. Nanda, Serge Silatsa & Silatsa, Francis B.T. & Jemo, Martin & Yemefack, Martin & Iwano, Junna & Fujiwara, Takahiro, 2026. "A biblio-econometric analysis of tropical forest loss dynamics," Forest Policy and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 182(C).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:agiwat:v:322:y:2025:i:c:s037837742500664x. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/agwat .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.