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Artificial intelligence, data and competition

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  • OECD

Abstract

This paper discusses recent developments in Artificial Intelligence (AI), particularly generative AI, which could positively impact many markets. While it is important that markets remain competitive to ensure their benefits are widely felt, the lifecycle for generative AI is still developing. This paper focuses on three stages: training foundation models, fine-tuning and deployment. It is too early to say how competition will develop in generative AI, but there appear to be some risks to competition that warrant attention, such as linkages across the generative AI value chain, including from existing markets, and potential barriers to accessing key inputs such as quality data and computing power. Several competition authorities and policy makers are taking actions to monitor market developments and may need to use the various advocacy and enforcement tools at their disposal. Furthermore, co-operation could play an important role in allowing authorities to efficiently maintain their knowledge and expertise.

Suggested Citation

  • Oecd, 2024. "Artificial intelligence, data and competition," OECD Artificial Intelligence Papers 18, OECD Publishing.
    • Handle: RePEc:oec:comaaa:18-en
    DOI: 10.1787/e7e88884-en
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    Cited by:

    1. Ahmed Chafai & Rym Oueslati & Hatem Salah, 2025. "Innovation Activities and Sustainable Firm Growth in Arab Countries: The Role of Bank Funding, Institutional Quality and Bank Competition," Working Papers 1819, Economic Research Forum, revised 20 Dec 2025.
    2. Zheng, Jianwen & Zhang, Justin Zuopeng & Kamal, Muhammad Mustafa & Liang, Xiaoyang & Alzeiby, Ebtesam Abdullah, 2025. "Unpacking human-AI interaction: Exploring unintended consequences on employee Well-being in entrepreneurial firms through an in-depth analysis," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 196(C).
    3. Radeef Chundakkadan & Subash Sasidharan & Kausik Chaudhuri, 2025. "Automation, firm performance, and employment: Evidence from developing countries," Journal of Evolutionary Economics, Springer, vol. 35(5), pages 873-900, November.
    4. Brodzicki, Tomasz, 2024. "Heterogeneous Firms and AI Adoption. Dynamic Insights into Market Structure and Global Trade," MPRA Paper 127767, University Library of Munich, Germany, revised 01 Apr 2025.
    5. Safari, Ashkan & Oshnoei, Arman & Blaabjerg, Frede, 2025. "A review of recent AI applications in next-generation power electronics," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 402(PA).
    6. Thompson, Jamie & Igarashi, Reika & Krowinska, Agata & Logan-McFarlane, Ashleigh, 2025. "Is it real or not? construction of meaning and identity in virtual influencer marketing," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 194(C).
    7. Yan-Mei Li & Hui-Min Lin & Hong-Yu Wu & Yi-Fan Gu, 2026. "How Business Model Innovation Affects Carbon Performance of Mobile Phone Industry Chain Enterprises: The Mediating Role of Artificial Intelligence and Green Technology," Advances in Management and Applied Economics, SCIENPRESS Ltd, vol. 16(2), pages 1-5.
    8. repec:aou:nszioz:y:2025:i:4:p:57-72 is not listed on IDEAS
    9. Ofori, Isaac K. & Veling, Louise & Cullen, John, 2026. "Frontier Technology Adoption and Inclusive Green Growth in the EU: A Double-edged Sword?," EconStor Preprints 335106, ZBW - Leibniz Information Centre for Economics.
    10. Yang ZHANG & Ziang QIU Ziang & Donghyun PARK & Shu TIAN, "undated". "Role of Artificial Intelligence in Finance: Selective Literature Review and Implications for Asia's Financial Stability," Working Papers wp61, South East Asian Central Banks (SEACEN) Research and Training Centre, revised Feb 2026.
    11. Zhou, Ke & Zhong, Xiang & Shao, Haidong & Zhang, Haomiao & Liu, Bin, 2025. "DT-PPO: A Real-Time multisensor-driven predictive maintenance framework," Reliability Engineering and System Safety, Elsevier, vol. 262(C).
    12. Alexandrov, Georgii A., 2025. "When does artificial intelligence replace process-based models in ecological modelling?," Ecological Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 499(C).
    13. gert Bijnens & Joep Konings & Aaron Putseys, 2025. "Unveiling the J-curve: How Intangibles Drive Productivity Mismeasurement," Working Papers of VIVES - Research Centre for Regional Economics 779815, KU Leuven, Faculty of Economics and Business (FEB), VIVES - Research Centre for Regional Economics.
    14. Chang, Chia-Yang (Mac) & Park, Sungjun (Steven) & Dinh, Minh Cong, 2026. "Advice by Algorithms: Dual Dimensions of Trust in AI Financial Service Adoption," Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Elsevier, vol. 88(C).
    15. Junhui Jeff Cai & Xian Gu & Liugang Sheng & Mengjia Xia & Linda Zhao & Wu Zhu, 2025. "AI as "Co-founder": GenAI for Entrepreneurship," Papers 2512.06506, arXiv.org.
    16. Sigale Dadirai Mweha, 2026. "Operationalising Ethical AI: A Governance Framework for Generative AI Adoption in Sub-Saharan African SMEs," International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), vol. 10(1), pages 1245-1257, January.
    17. Shiaw Tong Ha & May Chiun Lo & Abang Azlan Mohamad, 2026. "Empowering SME Potential: How AI Information Quality Fuels Market Orientation Success in the Digital Age," Journal of the Knowledge Economy, Springer;Portland International Center for Management of Engineering and Technology (PICMET), vol. 17(1), pages 2469-2489, February.
    18. Grzegorz Czapski & Mariusz Pyra, 2026. "Artificial Intelligence in Economic Education: Adoption, Uses and Student Perceptions in Higher Education," European Research Studies Journal, European Research Studies Journal, vol. 0(1), pages 551-568.

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