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Lessons from China on different approaches to pension coverage extension

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  • Litao Zhao
  • Xiaobin He

Abstract

Achieving universal pension coverage is both an aspiration and a challenge for many developing economies. Traditional contributory schemes are less effective in extending pension coverage to workers who are not in the formal sectors of the economy. As an alternative, non‐contributory schemes have gained popularity in recent years. China’s pension reforms mirror this global trend. The introduction of a contribution‐based pension scheme for urban employees (Employees’ Pension) was followed by a scheme for rural and urban residents (Residents’ Pension), which is partly government financed and partly contributory, with multiple options for premium payment. This study uses nationally representative survey data collected in 2016 to compare the inclusiveness of the two schemes. It finds that access to the Residents’ Pension scheme is more equal than the Employees’ Pension. Lower status workers in terms of education, employment, income and hukou‐migration are more likely to participate in the Residents’ Pension as opposed to the Employees’ Pension, compared with higher status workers. The Chinese experience suggests that a workable solution for pension extension in low‐ and middle‐income countries is to have a scheme that is flexible, affordable and responsive to the diverse needs of the population. Pour beaucoup de pays en développement, l’instauration d’une couverture universelle en matière de retraite est à la fois une aspiration et un défi. Les régimes contributifs traditionnels ne sont pas le moyen le plus adapté pour étendre cette couverture aux travailleurs qui ne sont pas employés dans le secteur formel. Considéré comme une autre voie envisageable, le recours aux régimes non contributifs suscite un intérêt grandissant depuis quelques années. La réforme des retraites engagée par la Chine reflète cette tendance mondiale. L’introduction d’un régime de retraite contributif pour les salariés vivant en milieu urbain (régime de retraite des salariés) a été suivie de l’instauration d’un régime en faveur des résidents ruraux et urbains (régime des résidents), financé à la fois par le budget de l’État et par des cotisations et offrant de multiples options pour le paiement des cotisations. Cette étude s’appuie sur des données recueillies en 2016 dans le cadre d’une enquête nationalement représentative pour comparer les deux régimes du point de vue de leur inclusivité. Les auteurs constatent que l’accès au régime des résidents est plus égalitaire que l’accès au régime des salariés. Contrairement aux travailleurs qui ont un statut social relativement élevé, ceux qui sont situés à un niveau plus bas de l’échelle sur le plan du niveau d’études, de l’emploi, du revenu et du type de permis de résidence détenu (hukou) ont une probabilité plus forte d’être affiliés au régime des résidents qu’au régime des salariés. L’expérience chinoise laisse penser que les pays à faible revenu et à revenu intermédiaire pourraient envisager, pour étendre la couverture des régimes de retraite, de recourir à un régime à la fois souple, supportable financièrement et capable d’évoluer en fonction des besoins divers de la population. Lograr la cobertura universal de las pensiones es un objetivo importante y un reto para muchas economías en desarrollo. Los regímenes contributivos tradicionales resultan menos eficaces a la hora de extender la cobertura de las pensiones a aquellos trabajadores que no pertenecen a los sectores formales de la economía. Por otra parte, la opción de los regímenes no contributivos ha ido adquiriendo mayor popularidad en los últimos años. Las reformas de las pensiones en China reflejan esta tendencia mundial. Tras la introducción de un régimen de pensiones basado en las cotizaciones para los empleados urbanos (pensiones para empleados) se puso en marcha un régimen para los residentes de zonas rurales y urbanas (pensiones para residentes), financiado en parte por el Gobierno y en parte mediante cotizaciones, con varias opciones para el pago de primas. En este estudio se utilizan datos de encuestas nacionales representativas de 2016 y se compara el nivel de cobertura de ambos regímenes. Se llega a la conclusión de que el acceso al régimen de pensiones para residentes es más equitativo que el acceso al régimen de pensiones para empleados. Es más probable que los trabajadores de menor nivel en cuanto a educación, empleo, ingresos y condición migratoria en el sistema hukou estén afiliados al régimen de pensiones para residentes que al régimen de pensiones para empleados, en comparación con los trabajadores de mayor nivel. La experiencia china indica que, contar con un régimen flexible, asequible y que responda a las diversas necesidades de la población es una solución viable para la extensión de la cobertura de las pensiones en los países de ingresos bajos y medios. Das Erreichen einer universellen Rentendeckung ist für viele aufstrebende Volkswirtschaften sowohl ein großes Ziel als auch eine Herausforderung. Herkömmliche beitragsabhängige Systeme sind oft weniger wirksam, wenn es darum geht, die Rentenversicherungsdeckung auf Arbeitnehmer auszuweiten, die nicht in formellen Wirtschaftssektoren tätig sind. Beitragsunabhängige Systeme haben in den vergangenen Jahren als Alternative an Beliebtheit gewonnen. Die Rentenreformen in China widerspiegeln diesen globalen Trend. Auf die Einführung eines beitragsabhängigen Rentensystems für städtische Angestellte („Angestelltenrente“) folgte ein System für Land‐ und Stadtbewohner („Residenzrente“), das zum Teil vom Staat und zum Teil durch Beiträge finanziert wird, wobei es viele Optionen für die Prämienentrichtung gibt. Die vorliegende Studie beruht auf national repräsentativen Umfragedaten aus dem Jahr 2016 und vergleicht die Reichweite der beiden Systeme. Sie kommt zum Schluss, dass der Zugang zum System der Residenzrente ausgeglichener ist als derjenige zum System der Angestelltenrente. Bei Arbeitnehmern mit geringerem Bildungsniveau, Beschäftigungsstatus, Einkommen und geringerem Migrationsstatus im Hukou‐System der offiziellen Wohnsitzkontrolle ist im Vergleich zu Arbeitnehmern mit höherem Status die Wahrscheinlichkeit höher, dass sie Mitglied des Residenz‐Rentensystems sind als des Angestellten‐Rentensystems. Die Erfahrungen in China zeigen, dass eine umsetzbare Lösung für die Ausweitung der Rentendeckung in Ländern mit geringen und mittleren Einkommen darin besteht, dass das System flexibel, bezahlbar und auf die verschiedenen Bedürfnisse der Bevölkerung anpassbar gestaltet wird. Для многих развивающихся стран достижение всеобщего охвата пенсионным обеспечением является целью и одновременно трудной задачей. Традиционные программы, основанные на взносах, менее эффективны для расширения охвата пенсионным обеспечением на работников, не занятых в формальных секторах экономики. В качестве альтернативы в последние годы распространение получили программы, не предусматривающие уплату взносов. Отражением этой мировой тенденции стали пенсионные реформы в Китае. Вслед за внедрением основанной на взносах программы пенсионного обеспечения городских работников (пенсии работающих по найму) была принята программа для городских и сельских жителей (пенсии постоянных жителей), которая частично финансируется государством, частично за счёт взносов и включает разные варианты уплаты страховых премий. В исследовании используются репрезентативные для всей страны данные за 2016 год, которые позволяют сравнить широту охвата обеих программ. Результаты исследования свидетельствуют о том, что программа пенсионного обеспечения постоянных жителей обеспечивает большее равенство с точки зрения участия, чем программа пенсий для работающих. Работники с более низким уровнем образования, занятости и дохода, а также приезжие с постоянной пропиской, с большей вероятностью участвуют в пенсионной программе для постоянных жителей, а работники с более высоким статусом – в пенсионной программе для работающих. Опыт Китая показывает, что действенным решением задачи расширения охвата пенсионным обеспечением в странах с низким и средним уровнем дохода является гибкая и приемлемая по цене программа, соответствующая потребностям различных групп населения. 实现养老保险全民覆盖对许多发展中经济体而言, 既是愿望, 也是挑战。传统的缴费型制度在扩大非正规经济部门工人养老保险覆盖面方面, 效果并不十分明显。作为替代方案, 非缴费型制度近年来越来越受欢迎。中国的养老保险改革映照了这一全球趋势。先为城镇职工引入缴费型养老保险制度 (职工养老保险), 然后为城乡居民再建立一种制度 (居民养老保险), 部分由政府补助, 部分由个人缴费, 有多档费率可供选择。本研究使用了2016年收集的具有国家代表性的调查数据, 对两种制度的包容性进行对比。研究发现, 居民养老保险比职工养老保险在机会上更加公平。在教育、就业、收入和户口等方面, 相较于地位较高的工人, 地位较低的工人更可能参加居民养老保险, 而非职工养老保险。中国的经验表明, 中低收入国家扩大养老保险覆盖面的一个可行性解决方案是建立一种灵活、可负担且能应对人口多种需求的制度。 يعتبر تحقيق التغطية الشاملة بالمعاشات التقاعدية طموحاً وتحدياً في الوقت نفسه للعديد من البلدان النامية. فالخطط التقليدية القائمة على الاشتراكات أقل فعالية من حيث توسيع نطاق التغطية بالمعاشات التقاعدية لتشمل الأشخاص من غير العاملين في القطاع الرسمي للاقتصاد. وكبديل لذلك، اكتسبت الخطط غير القائمة على الاشتراكات شعبيةً خلال السنوات الأخيرة. وتعكس الإصلاحات التي اضطلعت بها الصين في مجال المعاشات التقاعدية هذا التوجه العالمي. فاستُحدثت خطة معاشات تقاعدية قائمة على الاشتراكات للموظفين العاملين في المدن (معاش التقاعد للموظفين) تبعتها خطة للمقيمين في المناطق الريفية والحضرية (معاش التقاعد للمقيمين)، تمول الحكومة جزءاً منه، والجزء الآخر تموله الاشتراكات، مع إتاحة اختيارات متعددة لسداد الأقساط. وتستخدم هذه الدراسة بيانات استقصائية تمثل الواقع على الصعيد الوطني جُمعت في عام 2016 لمقارنة شمول الخطتين. وتجد الدراسة أن النفاذ إلى خطة المعاشات التقاعدية للمقيمين هي أكثر عدلاً من خطة المعاشات التقاعدية للموظفين. ويُرجَّح أن يشارك العمال من ذوي الوضع الأدنى من حيث التعليم والعمل والأجور ونظام هوكو للهجرة في خطة المعاشات التقاعدية للمقيمين على النقيض من خطة المعاشات التقاعدية للموظفين، بالمقارنة بالعاملين من ذوي المركز الأعلى. وتُبيِّن التجربة الصينية أن الحل العملي لتوسيع نطاق التغطية بالمعاشات التقاعدية في البلدان ذات الدخل المنخفض والمتوسط يكمن في وضع خطة مرنة ويسيرة تستجيب للاحتياجات المتنوعة للسكان. Alcançar a cobertura previdenciária universal é tanto uma aspiração como um desafio para muitas economias em desenvolvimento. Os regimes contributivos tradicionais são menos eficazes na extensão da cobertura de aposentadorias para os trabalhadores que não estão nos setores formais da economia. A título alternativo, os regimes não contributivos ganharam popularidade nos últimos anos. As reformas previdenciárias da China refletem essa tendência global. A introdução de um regime previdenciário baseado em contribuições para funcionários urbanos (Aposentadoria de Funcionários) foi seguido de um regime para residentes rurais e urbanos (Aposentadoria de Residentes), que é em parte financiado pelo governo e em parte contributivo, com várias opções para pagamento de prêmio. Este estudo usa dados de pesquisa nacionalmente representativos coletados em 2016 para comparar o potencial de inclusão dos dois regimes. A conclusão é que o acesso ao regime de Aposentadorias dos Residentes é mais paritário do que a Aposentadoria de Funcionários. Trabalhadores de status inferior em termos de educação, emprego, renda e migração no âmbito do sistema hukou são mais propensos a participar da Aposentadoria de Residentes em oposição à Aposentadoria de Funcionários, em comparação aos trabalhadores de status mais elevado. A experiência chinesa sugere que uma solução viável para extensão de aposentadoria em países de baixa e média renda é dispor de um regime flexível, acessível e que atenda às diversas necessidades da população.

Suggested Citation

  • Litao Zhao & Xiaobin He, 2021. "Lessons from China on different approaches to pension coverage extension," International Social Security Review, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 74(1), pages 5-34, January.
  • Handle: RePEc:wly:intssr:v:74:y:2021:i:1:p:5-34
    DOI: 10.1111/issr.12255
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