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London Fog: A Century of Pollution and Mortality, 1866–1965

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  • W. Walker Hanlon

    (Northwestern University, NBER, and CEPR)

Abstract

This study draws on London’s long experience with air pollution in order to improve our understanding of the overall effects of pollution exposure and how and why these effects evolve as locations develop. I compare uniquely detailed new mortality data covering 1866 to 1965 to the timing of London’s famous fog events, which trapped emissions in the city. I show that air pollution was a major contributor to mortality in London over this period and that it interacted strongly with specific infectious diseases. As a consequence of this interaction, reductions in the infectious disease burden substantially altered the health costs of pollution.

Suggested Citation

  • W. Walker Hanlon, 2024. "London Fog: A Century of Pollution and Mortality, 1866–1965," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 106(4), pages 910-923, July.
    • Handle: RePEc:tpr:restat:v:106:y:2024:i:4:p:910-923
    DOI: 10.1162/rest_a_01190
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    Citations

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    Cited by:

    1. Alastair Ball, 2018. "Hidden Costs of the Great London Smog: Evidence from Missing Births," Economics Bulletin, AccessEcon, vol. 38(4), pages 1823-1830.
    2. Schneider, Eric B., 2025. "Born in smog: the short- and long-run health consequences of acute air pollution exposure in historical London, 1892-1919," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 128850, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library.
    3. Christian Ochsner & Lukas Schmid, 2025. "Pandemics' backlash: The effects of the 1918 influenza on health attitudes and behavior," CERGE-EI Working Papers wp796, The Center for Economic Research and Graduate Education - Economics Institute, Prague.
    4. von Hinke, Stephanie & Sørensen, Emil N., 2023. "The long-term effects of early-life pollution exposure: Evidence from the London smog," Journal of Health Economics, Elsevier, vol. 92(C).
    5. Hanlon, W. Walker & Hansen, Casper Worm & Kantor, Jake, 2021. "Temperature, Disease, and Death in London: Analyzing Weekly Data for the Century from 1866 to 1965," The Journal of Economic History, Cambridge University Press, vol. 81(1), pages 40-80, March.
    6. Karen Clay & Joshua Lewis & Edson Severnini & Xiao Wang, 2024. "The Value of Health Insurance during a Crisis: Effects of Medicaid Implementation on Pandemic Influenza Mortality," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 106(5), pages 1393-1402, September.
    7. H. Spencer Banzhaf & William Mathews & Randall Walsh, 2024. "Hell with the Lid Off: Racial Segregation and Environmental Equity in America’s Most Polluted City," NBER Working Papers 32950, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    8. Brian Beach & Karen Clay & Martin Saavedra, 2022. "The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Its Lessons for COVID-19," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 60(1), pages 41-84, March.
    9. Clay, Karen & Lewis, Joshua & Severnini, Edson, 2019. "What explains cross-city variation in mortality during the 1918 influenza pandemic? Evidence from 438 U.S. cities," Economics & Human Biology, Elsevier, vol. 35(C), pages 42-50.
    10. Lavy, Victor & Rachkovski, Genia & Yoresh, Omry, 2025. "Heads Up : Does Air Pollution Cause workplace Accidents?," The Warwick Economics Research Paper Series (TWERPS) 1575, University of Warwick, Department of Economics.
    11. Lavy, Victor & Rachkovski, Genia & Yoresh, Omry, 2025. "Heads Up: Does Air Pollution Cause Workplace Accidents?," CAGE Online Working Paper Series 770, Competitive Advantage in the Global Economy (CAGE).
    12. W Walker Hanlon, 2020. "Coal Smoke, City Growth, and the Costs of the Industrial Revolution," The Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 130(626), pages 462-488.
    13. Schneider, Eric B., 2021. "The effect of nutritional status on historical infectious disease morbidity: evidence from the London Foundling Hospital, 1892-1919," Economic History Working Papers 111030, London School of Economics and Political Science, Department of Economic History.

    More about this item

    JEL classification:

    • N00 - Economic History - - General - - - General

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