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Does blockchain technology democratize entrepreneurial finance? An empirical comparison of ICOs, venture capital, and REITs

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  • Christian Fisch
  • Michele Meoli
  • Silvio Vismara

Abstract

Initial coin offerings (ICOs) are one of the major innovations that characterize the digital revolution of financial markets. Among the expectations created by the digital revolution is the democratization of entrepreneurial finance, defined in terms of the creation of more equality regarding the access to financial resources by categories known to be underrepresented among potential entrepreneurs. Following this line of research, we investigate, through two complementary empirical studies, whether gender, ethnicity, and geography affect the choice of ICOs vs. traditional financing alternatives. Additionally, we assess whether these characteristics increase the amount of money an entrepreneur can raise. In Study I, we compare 390 ICO ventures to a sample of 1,078 VC-backed blockchain ventures, identifying a negative correlation between the choice of an ICO (vs. VC-backing) and a location in an urban area. In Study II, we compare 160 ICO ventures to 163 real estate investment trusts (REITs), reaffirming the results of Study I. The findings show significant participation and likelihood of successful campaigns for ethnical minorities in ICOs, with the latter also being able to collect, ceteris paribus, larger amounts of funding. In contrast, female entrepreneurs do not have higher chances to participate nor raise funds in ICOs.

Suggested Citation

  • Christian Fisch & Michele Meoli & Silvio Vismara, 2022. "Does blockchain technology democratize entrepreneurial finance? An empirical comparison of ICOs, venture capital, and REITs," Economics of Innovation and New Technology, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 31(1-2), pages 70-89, February.
    • Handle: RePEc:taf:ecinnt:v:31:y:2022:i:1-2:p:70-89
    DOI: 10.1080/10438599.2020.1843991
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    Cited by:

    1. Muneer M. Alshater & Mayank Joshipura & Rim El Khoury & Nohade Nasrallah, 2023. "Initial Coin Offerings: a Hybrid Empirical Review," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 61(3), pages 891-908, October.
    2. Ploypailin Kijkasiwat & Hamza Almustafa & Pongsutti Phuensane, 2023. "Initial coin offerings for business: a systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis," SN Business & Economics, Springer, vol. 3(1), pages 1-31, January.
    3. Kreppmeier, Julia & Laschinger, Ralf & Steininger, Bertram & Dorfleitner, Gregor, 2023. "Real Estate Security Token Offerings and the Secondary Market: Driven by Crypto Hype or Fundamentals?," Working Paper Series 23/6, Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Real Estate and Construction Management & Banking and Finance.
    4. Johannes Fuchs & Paul P. Momtaz, 2025. "Token governance in initial coin offerings: Implications of token retention and resale restrictions for ICO success," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 64(3), pages 1321-1359, March.
    5. Hwei-Lin Chuang & Yang Zhao & Tingting Zhu, 2025. "Entrepreneurial teams and gender roles: evidence from equity crowdfunding achievement," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 65(1), pages 287-314, June.
    6. Gang Kou & Yang Lu, 2025. "FinTech: a literature review of emerging financial technologies and applications," Financial Innovation, Springer;Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, vol. 11(1), pages 1-34, December.
    7. Jing A. Zhang & Conor O’Kane & Denis Griffin, 2025. "What drives micro-entrepreneurs’ value-oriented innovative behavior in microfinance: an entrepreneurial resourcefulness perspective," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 65(3), pages 2033-2062, October.
    8. Shabnam Kazembalaghi & Jerry Coakley & José M. Liñares-Zegarra & Silvio Vismara, 2025. "Digital equity and government support during COVID-19," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 64(4), pages 1679-1705, April.
    9. Luisa Faust & Maura Kolbe & Sasan Mansouri & Paul P. Momtaz, 2022. "The Crowdfunding of Altruism," JRFM, MDPI, vol. 15(3), pages 1-29, March.
    10. Serwaah, Priscilla & Shneor, Rotem & Nyarko, Samuel Anokye & Nielsen, Kristian Roed, 2024. "Explaining gender differences in crowdfunding contribution intentions," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 76(C).
    11. Gunay, Samet & Goodell, John W. & Muhammed, Shahnawaz & Kirimhan, Destan, 2023. "Frequency connectedness between FinTech, NFT and DeFi: Considering linkages to investor sentiment," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 90(C).
    12. Kreppmeier, Julia & Laschinger, Ralf & Steininger, Bertram I. & Dorfleitner, Gregor, 2023. "Real estate security token offerings and the secondary market: Driven by crypto hype or fundamentals?," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 154(C).
    13. Erik E. Lehmann & Julian Schenkenhofer & Silvio Vismara, 2026. "Hidden champions and knowledge spillovers: innovation-enhancing agglomeration effects and niche technology specificity," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 66(2), pages 827-847, February.
    14. Cumming, Douglas & Drobetz, Wolfgang & Momtaz, Paul P. & Schermann, Niclas, 2025. "Financing decentralized digital platform growth: The role of crypto funds in blockchain-based startups," Journal of Business Venturing, Elsevier, vol. 40(1).
    15. Bosio, Andrea Odille & Butticè, Vicenzo & Crisanti, Andrea & Croce, Annalisa & Signore, Simone, 2025. "How Brexit reshaped venture capitals market: An analysis of UK and EU investments," Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 54(8).
    16. Meoli, Michele & Vismara, Silvio, 2022. "Machine-learning forecasting of successful ICOs," Journal of Economics and Business, Elsevier, vol. 121(C).
    17. Paola Agnese Bongini & Francesca Mattassoglio & Alessia Pedrazzoli & Silvio Vismara, 2025. "Crypto ecosystem: navigating the past, present, and future of decentralized finance," The Journal of Technology Transfer, Springer, vol. 50(5), pages 2054-2075, October.
    18. Lazos, Aristogenis, 2025. "When policy makers want to protect investors in equity crowdfunding: Does it have regional implications?," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 215(C).
    19. Simon Kleinert & Silvio Vismara, 2026. "The reconfiguration of entrepreneurship: how digital platforms and artificial intelligence transform the entrepreneurial process," Eurasian Business Review, Springer;Eurasia Business and Economics Society, vol. 16(1), pages 1-24, March.
    20. Silvio Vismara & Peter Wirtz, 2025. "Fundraising, Governance and Environmental Ethics: Evidence from Equity Crowdfunding," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 200(4), pages 841-865, September.
    21. Francesca Spigarelli & Lorenzo Compagnucci & Dominique Lepore, 2025. "Blockchain unlocking collaborative opportunities for environmental sustainability through innovation intermediaries," The Journal of Technology Transfer, Springer, vol. 50(2), pages 516-551, April.
    22. Niclas Dombrowski & Wolfgang Drobetz & Lars Hornuf & Paul P. Momtaz, 2023. "The Financial and Non-Financial Performance of Token-Based Crowdfunding: Certification Arbitrage, Investor Choice, and the Optimal Timing of ICOs," CESifo Working Paper Series 10393, CESifo.

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