IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/plo/pwat00/0000233.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Investigating impacts of gender-transformative interventions in water, sanitation, and hygiene: Structural validity, internal reliability and measurement invariance of the water, sanitation, and hygiene–Gender equality measure (WASH-GEM)

Author

Listed:
  • Jess MacArthur
  • Rachel P Chase
  • Diana Gonzalez
  • Tyler Kozole
  • Chris Nicoletti
  • Veasna Toeur
  • Juliet Willetts
  • SNV Beyond the Finish Line Team

Abstract

Links between gender equality and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are well documented in qualitative studies, and emerging literature is recognizing the transformative potential of WASH interventions towards improvements in gender equality, of which empowerment is an important aspect. However, quantitative approaches to measure changing gender equality within WASH programs remain nascent. This study builds on previous work conducted in collaboration with the multi-country Water for Women Fund, establishing the theoretical development of the multi-dimensional WASH-gender equality measure (WASH-GEM) with five domains: resources, agency, critical consciousness, structures, and wellbeing. Starting from a strong conceptual foundation–this article demonstrates the WASH-GEM’s empirical rigor in balance with practical considerations. We present the measure’s staged development; examine its structural validity, internal consistency, and measurement invariance from an empirical basis; providing analysis from concurrent validation studies in Cambodia and Nepal (n = 3056). Twelve of the WASH-GEM’s 15 testable themes demonstrated high internal reliability and nine structural validity. Further refinement is recommended for the remaining four themes. Validation results from Cambodia and Nepal provide evidence of women and men’s differentiated experiences in relation to their WASH access, decision-making and roles, and in their lives more broadly. Results also reinforce the intersectional experiences of inequality and the importance of measurement beyond women’s empowerment. Overall, we provide evaluators and researchers with twelve curated and validated measures to examine changing gender dynamics within WASH-programs. These measures can be used as diagnostic or evaluation tools to support design and implementation of gender-transformative WASH interventions, programs, and policies.

Suggested Citation

  • Jess MacArthur & Rachel P Chase & Diana Gonzalez & Tyler Kozole & Chris Nicoletti & Veasna Toeur & Juliet Willetts & SNV Beyond the Finish Line Team, 2024. "Investigating impacts of gender-transformative interventions in water, sanitation, and hygiene: Structural validity, internal reliability and measurement invariance of the water, sanitation, and hygie," PLOS Water, Public Library of Science, vol. 3(10), pages 1-24, October.
    • Handle: RePEc:plo:pwat00:0000233
    DOI: 10.1371/journal.pwat.0000233
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://journals.plos.org/water/article?id=10.1371/journal.pwat.0000233
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://journals.plos.org/water/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pwat.0000233&type=printable
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000233?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Yount, Kathryn M. & Cheong, Yuk Fai & Maxwell, Lauren & Heckert, Jessica & Martinez, Elena M. & Seymour, Gregory, 2019. "Measurement properties of the project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 124(C), pages 1-1.
    2. Yount, Kathryn M. & Cheong, Yuk Fai & Maxwell, Lauren & Heckert, Jessica & Martinez, Elena M. & Seymour, Greg, 2019. "Measurement properties of the Project-Level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index," IFPRI discussion papers 1798, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
    3. Dickin, Sarah & Bisung, Elijah & Nansi, Juste & Charles, Katrina, 2021. "Empowerment in water, sanitation and hygiene index," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 137(C).
    4. Juliet Willetts & Naomi Carrard & Joanne Crawford & Claire Rowland & Gabrielle Halcrow, 2013. "Working from strengths to assess changes in gender equality," Development in Practice, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 23(8), pages 991-1006, November.
    5. Rob Eisinga & Manfred Grotenhuis & Ben Pelzer, 2013. "The reliability of a two-item scale: Pearson, Cronbach, or Spearman-Brown?," International Journal of Public Health, Springer;Swiss School of Public Health (SSPH+), vol. 58(4), pages 637-642, August.
    6. Naila Kabeer, 1999. "Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women's Empowerment," Development and Change, International Institute of Social Studies, vol. 30(3), pages 435-464, July.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Sinharoy, Sheela S. & McManus, Shauna & Conrad, Amelia & Patrick, Madeleine & Caruso, Bethany A., 2023. "The Agency, Resources, and Institutional Structures for Sanitation-related Empowerment (ARISE) Scales: Development and validation of measures of women’s empowerment in urban sanitation for low- and mi," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 164(C).
    2. Malapit, Hazel & Quisumbing, Agnes & Meinzen-Dick, Ruth & Seymour, Greg & Martinez, Elena M. & Heckert, Jessica & Rubin, Deborah & Vaz, Ana & Yount, Kathryn M., 2019. "Development of the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI)," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 122(C), pages 675-692.
    3. Mei Zhang & Xinliang Wang, 2023. "Measurement of Common Prosperity of Chinese Rural Households Using Graded Response Models: Evidence from Zhejiang Province," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(5), pages 1-16, March.
    4. Korzenevica, Marina & Fallon Grasham, Catherine & Johnson, Zoé & Gebreegzabher, Amleset & Mebrahtu, Samrawit & Zerihun, Zenawi & Ferdous Hoque, Sonia & Charles, Katrina Jane, 2022. "Negotiating spaces of marginality and independence: On women entrepreneurs within Ethiopian urbanization and water precarity," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 158(C).
    5. Bethany A Caruso & Amelia Conrad & Madeleine Patrick & Ajilé Owens & Kari Kviten & Olivia Zarella & Hannah Rogers & Sheela S Sinharoy, 2022. "Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis," PLOS Water, Public Library of Science, vol. 1(6), pages 1-48, June.
    6. Saha, Shree & Narayanan, Sudha, 2022. "A simplified measure of nutritional empowerment: Using machine learning to abbreviate the Women’s Empowerment in Nutrition Index (WENI)," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 154(C).
    7. Narayanan, Sudha & Lentz, Erin & Fontana, Marzia & De, Anuradha & Kulkarni, Bharati, 2019. "Developing the Women's Empowerment in Nutrition Index in Two States of India," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 89(C).
    8. Joanna Springer & Annah Latané & Alice Brower & Sarah Frazer, 2022. "Exploring women's bargaining power in Haitian agricultural households," Journal of International Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 34(7), pages 1362-1380, October.
    9. Helen M. Haugh & Alka Talwar, 2016. "Linking Social Entrepreneurship and Social Change: The Mediating Role of Empowerment," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 133(4), pages 643-658, February.
    10. Rao, Nitya, 2017. "Assets, Agency and Legitimacy: Towards a Relational Understanding of Gender Equality Policy and Practice," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 95(C), pages 43-54.
    11. K. Gayathri Reddy & Varsha, P. S. & L. N. Sudheendra Rao & Amit Kumar, 2019. "Exploring dimension, perceived individual tension and capacity building measure of women empowerment in India," Asian Journal of Empirical Research, Asian Economic and Social Society, vol. 9(5), pages 111-131, May.
    12. Alice W Clark & T V Sekher, 2007. "Can Career-Minded Young Women Reverse Gender Discrimination?," Working Papers 179, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore.
    13. Gaurav Dhamija & Punarjit Roychowdhury & Binay Shankar, 2025. "Does urbanization empower women? Evidence from India," Journal of Population Economics, Springer;European Society for Population Economics, vol. 38(1), pages 1-47, March.
    14. chatterjee, susmita, 2017. "Empowerment translated to transition," MPRA Paper 80067, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    15. Alkire, Sabina & Meinzen-Dick, Ruth & Peterman, Amber & Quisumbing, Agnes & Seymour, Greg & Vaz, Ana, 2013. "The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 52(C), pages 71-91.
    16. Lone Badstue & Patti Petesch & Cathy Rozel Farnworth & Lara Roeven & Mahlet Hailemariam, 2020. "Women Farmers and Agricultural Innovation: Marital Status and Normative Expectations in Rural Ethiopia," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 12(23), pages 1-22, November.
    17. O'Hara, Corey & Clement, Floriane, 2018. "Power as agency: A critical reflection on the measurement of women’s empowerment in the development sector," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 106(C), pages 111-123.
    18. Bhukta, Rikhia & Pakrashi, Debayan & Saha, Sarani & Sedai, Ashish, 2024. "Community electrification and women’s autonomy," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 137(C).
    19. Wole Kinati & Elizabeth C. Temple & Derek Baker & Dina Najjar & Reta Hailu, 2024. "Understanding Agency Within Context: The Case of Breeding Cooperatives Program for Transforming Small Ruminant Value Chain in Ethiopia," SAGE Open, , vol. 14(2), pages 21582440241, April.
    20. Serra, Renata & McKune, Sarah & Ludgate, Nargiza & Singh, Nitya & Devkota, Kabita & Fall, Mouhamed & Obin, Gordon & Touré, Alioune & Tiwari, Chhavi & Russo, Sandra, 2025. "Intersectionality matters: An analysis of women’s empowerment among livestock holders in Nepal, Senegal and Uganda," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 191(C).

    More about this item

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:plo:pwat00:0000233. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: water (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://journals.plos.org/water .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.