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Investigating impacts of gender-transformative interventions in water, sanitation, and hygiene: Structural validity, internal reliability and measurement invariance of the water, sanitation, and hygiene–Gender equality measure (WASH-GEM)

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  • Jess MacArthur
  • Rachel P Chase
  • Diana Gonzalez
  • Tyler Kozole
  • Chris Nicoletti
  • Veasna Toeur
  • Juliet Willetts
  • SNV Beyond the Finish Line Team

Abstract

Links between gender equality and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are well documented in qualitative studies, and emerging literature is recognizing the transformative potential of WASH interventions towards improvements in gender equality, of which empowerment is an important aspect. However, quantitative approaches to measure changing gender equality within WASH programs remain nascent. This study builds on previous work conducted in collaboration with the multi-country Water for Women Fund, establishing the theoretical development of the multi-dimensional WASH-gender equality measure (WASH-GEM) with five domains: resources, agency, critical consciousness, structures, and wellbeing. Starting from a strong conceptual foundation–this article demonstrates the WASH-GEM’s empirical rigor in balance with practical considerations. We present the measure’s staged development; examine its structural validity, internal consistency, and measurement invariance from an empirical basis; providing analysis from concurrent validation studies in Cambodia and Nepal (n = 3056). Twelve of the WASH-GEM’s 15 testable themes demonstrated high internal reliability and nine structural validity. Further refinement is recommended for the remaining four themes. Validation results from Cambodia and Nepal provide evidence of women and men’s differentiated experiences in relation to their WASH access, decision-making and roles, and in their lives more broadly. Results also reinforce the intersectional experiences of inequality and the importance of measurement beyond women’s empowerment. Overall, we provide evaluators and researchers with twelve curated and validated measures to examine changing gender dynamics within WASH-programs. These measures can be used as diagnostic or evaluation tools to support design and implementation of gender-transformative WASH interventions, programs, and policies.

Suggested Citation

  • Jess MacArthur & Rachel P Chase & Diana Gonzalez & Tyler Kozole & Chris Nicoletti & Veasna Toeur & Juliet Willetts & SNV Beyond the Finish Line Team, 2024. "Investigating impacts of gender-transformative interventions in water, sanitation, and hygiene: Structural validity, internal reliability and measurement invariance of the water, sanitation, and hygie," PLOS Water, Public Library of Science, vol. 3(10), pages 1-24, October.
    • Handle: RePEc:plo:pwat00:0000233
    DOI: 10.1371/journal.pwat.0000233
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    2. Yount, Kathryn M. & Cheong, Yuk Fai & Maxwell, Lauren & Heckert, Jessica & Martinez, Elena M. & Seymour, Greg, 2019. "Measurement properties of the Project-Level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index," IFPRI discussion papers 1798, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
    3. Dickin, Sarah & Bisung, Elijah & Nansi, Juste & Charles, Katrina, 2021. "Empowerment in water, sanitation and hygiene index," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 137(C).
    4. Juliet Willetts & Naomi Carrard & Joanne Crawford & Claire Rowland & Gabrielle Halcrow, 2013. "Working from strengths to assess changes in gender equality," Development in Practice, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 23(8), pages 991-1006, November.
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    6. Naila Kabeer, 1999. "Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women's Empowerment," Development and Change, International Institute of Social Studies, vol. 30(3), pages 435-464, July.
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