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Centralized vs. Decentralized Black-Mass Production: A Comparative Analysis of Lithium Reverse Logistics Supply Chain Networks

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  • Oluwatosin S. Atitebi

    (Department of Industrial, Manufacturing and Systems Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, 500 West 1st Street, Arlington, TX 76019-0017, USA)

  • Erick C. Jones

    (Department of Industrial, Manufacturing and Systems Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, 500 West 1st Street, Arlington, TX 76019-0017, USA)

Abstract

Background : The transition to renewable energy is intensifying demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), thereby increasing the need for sustainable lithium sourcing. Traditional mining practices pose environmental and health risks, which can be mitigated through efficient end-of-life recycling systems. Methods : This study proposes a modified lithium reverse logistics network that decentralizes black-mass production at distributed facilities before centralized extraction, contrasting with conventional models that transport raw LIBs directly to central processing sites. Using the United States as a case study, two mathematical optimization (mixed-integer linear programming) models were developed to compare the traditional and modified networks in terms of cost efficiency and carbon emissions. Results : The model indicates that the proposed network significantly reduces both operational costs and emissions. Conclusions : This study highlights its potential to support a greener economy and inform policy development.

Suggested Citation

  • Oluwatosin S. Atitebi & Erick C. Jones, 2025. "Centralized vs. Decentralized Black-Mass Production: A Comparative Analysis of Lithium Reverse Logistics Supply Chain Networks," Logistics, MDPI, vol. 9(3), pages 1-18, July.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jlogis:v:9:y:2025:i:3:p:97-:d:1708230
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