IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jijerp/v18y2021i4p1769-d497860.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Virtual Water Trade in the Service Sector: China’s Inbound Tourism as a Case Study

Author

Listed:
  • Yu Zhang

    (School of Geography and Tourism, Qufu Normal University, Rizhao 276826, China
    Huangshan Park Ecosystem Observation and Research Station, Ministry of Education, Huangshan 245800, China)

  • Jin-he Zhang

    (Huangshan Park Ecosystem Observation and Research Station, Ministry of Education, Huangshan 245800, China
    School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China)

  • Qing Tian

    (School of Geography and Tourism, Qufu Normal University, Rizhao 276826, China)

Abstract

Research on virtual water and the water footprint is mainly focused on agriculture and industry, and less so on the service sector. The trade in products generates virtual water flow, as does the flow of people. The flow of international tourists will inevitably lead to the transfer and exchange of water resources embedded in the virtual form. This study takes China’s inbound tourism flow as the research object, from the perspective of the water footprint, in order to explore virtual water “exports” to the world. Based on kernel density estimation and ArcGIS spatial analysis, spatial-temporal evolution and structural difference were investigated. Virtual water “exports” showed an increasing trend. The kernel density estimation curves basically exhibited a “single peak” feature which indicated that virtual water “exports” from tourism were not significantly polarized in China. In terms of spatial evolution, this varied greatly at the provincial and regional level and Guangdong was always in the high value area. The south displayed greater values than the north, but this difference in provinces narrowed over the years. The water footprint of food was the largest, more specifically, the green component of this water footprint. Promoting a reasonable diet, reducing food waste, improving agricultural production technology, reducing the frequency of changing hotel supplies, and encouraging the use of new energy helped to reduce the water footprint. Virtual water trade in the service sector provides a new idea for helping to mitigate the global water crisis, in addition to virtual water flow for agricultural products.

Suggested Citation

  • Yu Zhang & Jin-he Zhang & Qing Tian, 2021. "Virtual Water Trade in the Service Sector: China’s Inbound Tourism as a Case Study," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(4), pages 1-20, February.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:18:y:2021:i:4:p:1769-:d:497860
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/4/1769/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/4/1769/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Ayres, Andrew, 2014. "Germany’s water footprint of transport fuels," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 113(C), pages 1746-1751.
    2. Novo, P. & Garrido, A. & Varela-Ortega, C., 2009. "Are virtual water "flows" in Spanish grain trade consistent with relative water scarcity?," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 68(5), pages 1454-1464, March.
    3. Cazcarro, I. & Hoekstra, A.Y. & Sánchez Chóliz, J., 2014. "The water footprint of tourism in Spain," Tourism Management, Elsevier, vol. 40(C), pages 90-101.
    4. Duarte, Rosa & Pinilla, Vicente & Serrano, Ana, 2014. "The effect of globalisation on water consumption: A case study of the Spanish virtual water trade, 1849–1935," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 100(C), pages 96-105.
    5. Ignacio Cazcarro & Rosa Duarte & Julio Sánchez Chóliz, 2016. "Tracking Water Footprints at the Micro and Meso Scale: An Application to Spanish Tourism by Regions and Municipalities," Journal of Industrial Ecology, Yale University, vol. 20(3), pages 446-461, June.
    6. Mi Tian & Qingwen Min & Fei Lun & Zheng Yuan & Anthony M. Fuller & Lun Yang & Yongxun Zhang & Jie Zhou, 2015. "Evaluation of Tourism Water Capacity in Agricultural Heritage Sites," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 7(11), pages 1-22, November.
    7. Chapagain, A.K. & Hoekstra, A.Y., 2011. "The blue, green and grey water footprint of rice from production and consumption perspectives," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 70(4), pages 749-758, February.
    8. Chapagain, A.K. & Hoekstra, A.Y., 2007. "The water footprint of coffee and tea consumption in the Netherlands," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 64(1), pages 109-118, October.
    9. Bocchiola, D. & Nana, E. & Soncini, A., 2013. "Impact of climate change scenarios on crop yield and water footprint of maize in the Po valley of Italy," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 116(C), pages 50-61.
    10. Aldaya, M.M. & Allan, J.A. & Hoekstra, A.Y., 2010. "Strategic importance of green water in international crop trade," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 69(4), pages 887-894, February.
    11. Chapagain, A.K. & Hoekstra, A.Y. & Savenije, H.H.G. & Gautam, R., 2006. "The water footprint of cotton consumption: An assessment of the impact of worldwide consumption of cotton products on the water resources in the cotton producing countries," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 60(1), pages 186-203, November.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Yingying Hu, 2022. "Where Have Carbon Emissions Gone? Evidence of Inbound Tourism in China," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(18), pages 1-20, September.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Yu Zhang & Qing Tian & Huan Hu & Miao Yu, 2019. "Water Footprint of Food Consumption by Chinese Residents," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 16(20), pages 1-15, October.
    2. Ignacio Cazcarro & Rosa Duarte & Miguel Martín-Retortillo & Vicente Pinilla & Ana Serrano, 2015. "How Sustainable is the Increase in the Water Footprint of the Spanish Agricultural Sector? A Provincial Analysis between 1955 and 2005–2010," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 7(5), pages 1-26, April.
    3. María Jesús Beltrán & Esther Velázquez, 2011. "Del metabolismo social al metabolismo hídrico," Documentos de Trabajo de la Asociación de Economía Ecológica en España 01_2011, Asociación de Economía Ecológica en España.
    4. Okadera, Tomohiro & Geng, Yong & Fujita, Tsuyoshi & Dong, Huijuan & Liu, Zhu & Yoshida, Noboru & Kanazawa, Takaaki, 2015. "Evaluating the water footprint of the energy supply of Liaoning Province, China: A regional input–output analysis approach," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 78(C), pages 148-157.
    5. Dennis Wichelns, 2010. "Virtual Water: A Helpful Perspective, but not a Sufficient Policy Criterion," Water Resources Management: An International Journal, Published for the European Water Resources Association (EWRA), Springer;European Water Resources Association (EWRA), vol. 24(10), pages 2203-2219, August.
    6. Duarte, Rosa & Pinilla, Vicente & Serrano, Ana, 2014. "The water footprint of the Spanish agricultural sector: 1860–2010," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 108(C), pages 200-207.
    7. R. R. Weerasooriya & L. P. K. Liyanage & R. H. K. Rathnappriya & W. B. M. A. C. Bandara & T. A. N. T. Perera & M. H. J. P. Gunarathna & G. Y. Jayasinghe, 2021. "Industrial water conservation by water footprint and sustainable development goals: a review," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 23(9), pages 12661-12709, September.
    8. Mengran Fu & Bin Guo & Weijiao Wang & Juan Wang & Lihua Zhao & Jianlin Wang, 2019. "Comprehensive Assessment of Water Footprints and Water Scarcity Pressure for Main Crops in Shandong Province, China," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 11(7), pages 1-18, March.
    9. Zhenquan Xiao & Polat Muhtar & Wenxiu Huo & Chaogao An & Ling Yang & Fengrong Zhang, 2021. "Spatial and Temporal Differentiation of the Tourism Water Footprint in Mainland China and Its Influencing Factors," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(18), pages 1-23, September.
    10. Okadera, Tomohiro & Chontanawat, Jaruwan & Gheewala, Shabbir H., 2014. "Water footprint for energy production and supply in Thailand," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 77(C), pages 49-56.
    11. Yue Zhang & Kai Huang & Yajuan Yu & Tingting Hu & Jing Wei, 2015. "Impact of climate change and drought regime on water footprint of crop production: the case of Lake Dianchi Basin, China," Natural Hazards: Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards, Springer;International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards, vol. 79(1), pages 549-566, October.
    12. Yue Zhang & Kai Huang & Yajuan Yu & Linxiu Wu, 2020. "An uncertainty-based multivariate statistical approach to predict crop water footprint under climate change: a case study of Lake Dianchi Basin, China," Natural Hazards: Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards, Springer;International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards, vol. 104(1), pages 91-110, October.
    13. Namra Ghaffar & Bushra Noreen & Maryam Muhammad Ali & Amna Ali, 2021. "Rice Yield Estimation in Sawat Region Incorporating The Local Physio-Climatic Parameters," International Journal of Agriculture & Sustainable Development, 50sea, vol. 3(2), pages 46-50, June.
    14. Ehsan Qasemipour & Ali Abbasi & Farhad Tarahomi, 2020. "Water-Saving Scenarios Based on Input–Output Analysis and Virtual Water Concept: A Case in Iran," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 12(3), pages 1-16, January.
    15. Changfeng Shi & Hang Yuan & Qinghua Pang & Yangyang Zhang, 2020. "Research on the Decoupling of Water Resources Utilization and Agricultural Economic Development in Gansu Province from the Perspective of Water Footprint," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(16), pages 1-16, August.
    16. Dennis Wichelns, 2015. "Water productivity and water footprints are not helpful in determining optimal water allocations or efficient management strategies," Water International, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 40(7), pages 1059-1070, November.
    17. Wiedmann, Thomas, 2009. "A first empirical comparison of energy Footprints embodied in trade -- MRIO versus PLUM," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 68(7), pages 1975-1990, May.
    18. Mubako, Stanley & Lahiri, Sajal & Lant, Christopher, 2013. "Input–output analysis of virtual water transfers: Case study of California and Illinois," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 93(C), pages 230-238.
    19. Marta Antonelli & Martina Sartori, 2014. "Unfolding the Potential of the Virtual Water Concept. What is still under debate?," IEFE Working Papers 74, IEFE, Center for Research on Energy and Environmental Economics and Policy, Universita' Bocconi, Milano, Italy.
    20. Chapagain, A.K. & Hoekstra, A.Y., 2011. "The blue, green and grey water footprint of rice from production and consumption perspectives," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 70(4), pages 749-758, February.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:18:y:2021:i:4:p:1769-:d:497860. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.