IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jeners/v18y2025i8p1970-d1633038.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Mechanical, Thermal, and Environmental Energy Harvesting Solutions in Fully Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Innovative Approaches and Commercial Systems

Author

Listed:
  • Giuseppe Rausa

    (Department of Innovation Engineering, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy)

  • Maurizio Calabrese

    (Department of Innovation Engineering, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy)

  • Ramiro Velazquez

    (Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Panamericana, Aguascalientes 20296, Mexico)

  • Carolina Del-Valle-Soto

    (Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Panamericana, Zapopan 45010, Mexico)

  • Roberto De Fazio

    (Department of Innovation Engineering, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy
    Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Panamericana, Aguascalientes 20296, Mexico)

  • Paolo Visconti

    (Department of Innovation Engineering, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy
    Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Panamericana, Aguascalientes 20296, Mexico)

Abstract

Energy harvesting in the automotive sector is a rapidly growing field aimed at improving vehicle efficiency and sustainability by recovering wasted energy. Various technologies have been developed to convert mechanical, thermal, and environmental energy into electrical power, reducing dependency on traditional energy sources. This manuscript provides a comprehensive review of energy harvesting applications/methodologies, aiming to trace the research lines and future developments. This work identifies the main categories of harvesting solutions, namely mechanical, thermal, and hybrid/environmental solar–wind systems; each section includes a detailed review of the technical and scientific state of the art and a comparative analysis with detailed tables, allowing the state of the art to be mapped for identification of the strengths of each solution, as well as the challenges and future developments needed to enhance the technological level. These improvements focus on energy conversion efficiency, material innovation, vehicle integration, energy savings, and environmental sustainability. The mechanical harvesting section focuses on energy recovery from vehicle vibrations, with emphasis on regenerative suspensions and piezoelectric-based solutions. Specifically, solutions applied to suspensions with electric generators can achieve power outputs of around 1 kW, while piezoelectric-based suspension systems can generate up to tens of watts. The thermal harvesting section, instead, explores methods for converting waste heat from an internal combustion engine (ICE) into electrical power, including thermoelectric generators (TEGs) and organic Rankine cycle systems (ORC). Notably, ICEs with TEGs can recover above 1 kW of power, while ICE-based ORC systems can generate tens of watts. On the other hand, TEGs integrated into braking systems can harvest a few watts of power. Then, hybrid solutions are discussed, focusing on integrated mechanical and thermal energy recovery systems, as well as solar and wind energy harvesting. Hybrid solutions can achieve power outputs above 1 kW, with the main contribution from TEGs (≈1 kW), compared to piezoelectric systems (hundreds of W). Lastly, a section on commercial solutions highlights how current scientific research meets the automotive sector’s needs, providing significant insights for future development. For these reasons, the research results aim to be guidelines for a better understanding of where future studies should focus to improve the technological level and efficiency of energy harvesting solutions in the automotive sector.

Suggested Citation

  • Giuseppe Rausa & Maurizio Calabrese & Ramiro Velazquez & Carolina Del-Valle-Soto & Roberto De Fazio & Paolo Visconti, 2025. "Mechanical, Thermal, and Environmental Energy Harvesting Solutions in Fully Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Innovative Approaches and Commercial Systems," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(8), pages 1-54, April.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:18:y:2025:i:8:p:1970-:d:1633038
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/8/1970/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/8/1970/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Lee, Sangwook & Chung, Yoong & Kim, Sunjin & Jeong, Yeonwoo & Kim, Min Soo, 2023. "Predictive optimization method for the waste heat recovery strategy in an electric vehicle heat pump system," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 333(C).
    2. Yu, Gang & He, Lipeng & Wang, Hongxin & Sun, Lei & Zhang, Zhonghua & Cheng, Guangming, 2023. "Research of rotating piezoelectric energy harvester for automotive motion," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 211(C), pages 484-493.
    3. Hu, Yanqiang & Wang, Xiaoli & Qin, Yechen & Li, Zhihao & Wang, Chenfei & Wu, Heng, 2022. "A robust hybrid generator for harvesting vehicle suspension vibration energy from random road excitation," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 309(C).
    4. Li, Hai & Zheng, Peng & Zhang, Tingsheng & Zou, Yingquan & Pan, Yajia & Zhang, Zutao & Azam, Ali, 2021. "A high-efficiency energy regenerative shock absorber for powering auxiliary devices of new energy driverless buses," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 295(C).
    5. Bai, Shengxi & Liu, Chunhua, 2021. "Overview of energy harvesting and emission reduction technologies in hybrid electric vehicles," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 147(C).
    6. Luo, Ding & Yang, Shuo & Yan, Yuying & Cao, Jin & Yang, Xuelin & Cao, Bingyang, 2024. "Performance improvement of the automotive thermoelectric generator system with a novel heat pipe configuration," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 306(C).
    7. Zhai, Xiangyu & Li, Zening & Li, Zhengmao & Xue, Yixun & Chang, Xinyue & Su, Jia & Jin, Xiaolong & Wang, Peng & Sun, Hongbin, 2025. "Risk-averse energy management for integrated electricity and heat systems considering building heating vertical imbalance: An asynchronous decentralized approach," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 383(C).
    8. Saleh Alhumaid & Daniel Hess & Rasim Guldiken, 2022. "A Noncontact Magneto–Piezo Harvester-Based Vehicle Regenerative Suspension System: An Experimental Study," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(12), pages 1-17, June.
    9. Said Bentouba & Nadjet Zioui & Peter Breuhaus & Mahmoud Bourouis, 2023. "Overview of the Potential of Energy Harvesting Sources in Electric Vehicles," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(13), pages 1-22, July.
    10. Huang, Bin & Shen, Zu-Guo, 2022. "Performance assessment of annular thermoelectric generators for automobile exhaust waste heat recovery," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 246(C).
    11. Zhang, Baifu & Zhao, Zhen & Li, Yongxin & Zhang, Xiaohui & Li, Xinjun & Hao, Daning & Zhang, Zutao, 2025. "Design and analysis of a piezoelectric energy harvesting shock absorber for light truck applications," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 377(PB).
    12. Rijpkema, Jelmer & Erlandsson, Olof & Andersson, Sven B. & Munch, Karin, 2022. "Exhaust waste heat recovery from a heavy-duty truck engine: Experiments and simulations," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 238(PB).
    13. Zhang, Weijie & Wang, Guosheng & Guo, Yong, 2023. "Research on damping and energy recovery characteristics of a novel mechanical-electrical-hydraulic regenerative suspension system," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 271(C).
    14. Wang, Xuan & Liu, Pengcheng & Ling, Zhi & Tian, Hua & Shu, Gequn, 2025. "Contribution of waste heat recovery system to hydrogen power technology for land transportation," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 377(PA).
    15. Lan, Song & Stobart, Richard & Wang, Xiaonan, 2022. "Matching and optimization for a thermoelectric generator applied in an extended-range electric vehicle for waste heat recovery," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 313(C).
    16. Luo, Ding & Sun, Zeyu & Wang, Ruochen, 2022. "Performance investigation of a thermoelectric generator system applied in automobile exhaust waste heat recovery," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 238(PB).
    17. Zhou, Ran & Yan, Mingyin & Sun, Feng & Jin, Junjie & Li, Qiang & Xu, Fangchao & Zhang, Ming & Zhang, Xiaoyou & Nakano, Kimihiko, 2022. "Experimental validations of a magnetic energy-harvesting suspension and its potential application for self-powered sensing," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 239(PC).
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Zhang, Baifu & Zhao, Zhen & Li, Yongxin & Zhang, Xiaohui & Li, Xinjun & Hao, Daning & Zhang, Zutao, 2025. "Design and analysis of a piezoelectric energy harvesting shock absorber for light truck applications," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 377(PB).
    2. Hong, Bing-Hua & Huang, Xiao-Yan & He, Jian-Wei & Cai, Yang & Wang, Wei-Wei & Zhao, Fu-Yun, 2023. "Round-the-clock performance of solar thermoelectric wall with phase change material in subtropical climate: Critical analysis and parametric investigations," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 272(C).
    3. Chen, Jie & Wang, Ruochen & Ding, Renkai & Luo, Ding, 2024. "Matching design and numerical optimization of automotive thermoelectric generator system applied to range-extended electric vehicle," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 370(C).
    4. Chen, Jie & Wang, Ruochen & Ding, Renkai & Luo, Ding, 2024. "Comprehensive comparison and applicable range of separating and coupling numerical models of thermoelectric generation device for waste heat recovery," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 304(C).
    5. Zhang, Li & Kan, Junwu & Lin, Shijie & Liao, Weilin & Yang, Jianwen & Liu, Panpan & Wang, Shuyun & Zhang, Zhonghua, 2024. "Design and performance evaluation of a pendulous piezoelectric rotational energy harvester through magnetic plucking of a fan-shaped hanging composite plate," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 222(C).
    6. Yang, Wenlong & Zhu, WenChao & Du, Banghua & Wang, Han & Xu, Lamei & Xie, Changjun & Shi, Ying, 2023. "Power generation of annular thermoelectric generator with silicone polymer thermal conductive oil applied in automotive waste heat recovery," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 282(C).
    7. Lin, Yuancheng & Chong, Chin Hao & Ma, Linwei & Li, Zheng & Ni, Weidou, 2022. "Quantification of waste heat potential in China: A top-down Societal Waste Heat Accounting Model," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 261(PB).
    8. Zhao, Yulong & Lu, Mingjie & Li, Yanzhe & Wang, Yulin & Ge, Minghui, 2023. "Numerical investigation of an exhaust thermoelectric generator with a perforated plate," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 263(PB).
    9. Wang, Xudong & Wang, Qi & Wang, Wei & Cui, Yongjie & Song, Yuling, 2023. "Performance investigation of piezoelectric-mechanical electromagnetic compound vibration energy harvester for electric tractor," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 281(C).
    10. Caixin Yan & Zhifeng Qiu, 2025. "Review of Power Market Optimization Strategies Based on Industrial Load Flexibility," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(7), pages 1-41, March.
    11. Zhou, Xu & Wang, Kangda & Li, Siyu & Wang, Yadong & Sun, Daoyu & Wang, Longlong & He, Zhizhu & Tang, Wei & Liu, Huicong & Jin, Xiaoping & Li, Zhen, 2024. "An ultra-compact lightweight electromagnetic generator enhanced with Halbach magnet array and printed triphase windings," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 353(PA).
    12. Luo, Rongkang & Yu, Zhihao & Wu, Peibao & Hou, Zhichao, 2023. "Analytical solutions of the energy harvesting potential from vehicle vertical vibration based on statistical energy conservation," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 264(C).
    13. Luo, Ding & Yan, Yuying & Li, Ying & Wang, Ruochen & Cheng, Shan & Yang, Xuelin & Ji, Dongxu, 2023. "A hybrid transient CFD-thermoelectric numerical model for automobile thermoelectric generator systems," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 332(C).
    14. Chen, Lingen & Lorenzini, Giulio, 2023. "Heating load, COP and exergetic efficiency optimizations for TEG-TEH combined thermoelectric device with Thomson effect and external heat transfer," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 270(C).
    15. Sakthivelnathan Nallainathan & Ali Arefi & Christopher Lund & Ali Mehrizi-Sani, 2025. "Microgrid Reliability Incorporating Uncertainty in Weather and Equipment Failure," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(8), pages 1-23, April.
    16. Muhammad Shahid Mastoi & Hafiz Mudassir Munir & Shenxian Zhuang & Mannan Hassan & Muhammad Usman & Ahmad Alahmadi & Basem Alamri, 2022. "A Comprehensive Analysis of the Power Demand–Supply Situation, Electricity Usage Patterns, and the Recent Development of Renewable Energy in China," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(6), pages 1-34, March.
    17. Sun, Zeyu & Luo, Ding & Wang, Ruochen & Li, Ying & Yan, Yuying & Cheng, Ziming & Chen, Jie, 2022. "Evaluation of energy recovery potential of solar thermoelectric generators using a three-dimensional transient numerical model," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 256(C).
    18. Qingbo Tan & Zhuning Wang & Wei Fan & Xudong Li & Xiangguang Li & Fanqi Li & Zihao Zhao, 2022. "Development Path and Model Design of a New Energy Vehicle in China," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(1), pages 1-15, December.
    19. Damien Guilbert & Gianpaolo Vitale, 2021. "Hydrogen as a Clean and Sustainable Energy Vector for Global Transition from Fossil-Based to Zero-Carbon," Clean Technol., MDPI, vol. 3(4), pages 1-29, December.
    20. Jun Wang & Yonggao Yin & Chunwen Che & Mengying Cui, 2025. "Research Progress of Thermoelectric Materials—A Review," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(8), pages 1-24, April.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:18:y:2025:i:8:p:1970-:d:1633038. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.