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AI users are not all alike: The characteristics of French firms buying and developing AI

Author

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  • Calvino, Flavio
  • Fontanelli, Luca

Abstract

In this work we characterise French firms using artificial intelligence (AI) in 2018 and explore the link between AI use and productivity. We distinguish AI users that source AI from external providers (AI buyers) from those developing their own AI systems (AI developers) based on the official French ICT survey, that provides information about the use of AI by firms. AI buyers tend to be larger than other firms, but this relation is explained by ICT-related variables. Conversely, AI developers are larger and younger beyond ICT. Other digital technologies, digital skills, and infrastructure play a key role for AI use, with AI developers leveraging more specialised ICT human capital than AI buyers. Overall, AI users tend to be more productive, however this is related to the self-selection of more productive and digital-intensive firms into AI use. This is not the case for AI developers, for which the positive link between AI use and productivity remains positive and significant. This relationship persists across multiple robustness checks, including analyses addressing endogeneity concerns.

Suggested Citation

  • Calvino, Flavio & Fontanelli, Luca, 2026. "AI users are not all alike: The characteristics of French firms buying and developing AI," Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 55(5).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:respol:v:55:y:2026:i:5:s0048733326000648
    DOI: 10.1016/j.respol.2026.105473
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    2. Fontanelli, Luca & Guerini, Mattia & Miniaci, Raffaele & Secchi, Angelo, 2025. "Predictive AI and productivity growth dynamics: Evidence from French firms," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 240(C).
    3. Andres, Raphaela & Niebel, Thomas & Sack, Robin, 2025. "Big data and firm-level productivity – A cross-country comparison," Information Economics and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    4. Dumont, Michel & Rayp, Glenn, 2025. "Belgian start-ups in Artificial Intelligence," MPRA Paper 126994, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    5. Flavio Calvino & Luca Fontanelli, 2025. "Decoding AI: Nine facts about how firms use artificial intelligence in France," LEM Papers Series 2025/13, Laboratory of Economics and Management (LEM), Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pisa, Italy.
    6. Fontanelli, Luca & Calvino, Flavio & Criscuolo, Chiara & Nesta, Lionel & Verdolini, Elena, 2025. "Human after all: Occupations at the core of AI adoption," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 95(C).
    7. Flavio Calvino & Luca Fontanelli, 2026. "Decoding AI: an early look at how French firms use AI," Eurasian Business Review, Springer;Eurasia Business and Economics Society, vol. 16(1), pages 51-93, March.

    More about this item

    Keywords

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    JEL classification:

    • D20 - Microeconomics - - Production and Organizations - - - General
    • J24 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demand and Supply of Labor - - - Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity
    • O14 - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth - - Economic Development - - - Industrialization; Manufacturing and Service Industries; Choice of Technology
    • O33 - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth - - Innovation; Research and Development; Technological Change; Intellectual Property Rights - - - Technological Change: Choices and Consequences; Diffusion Processes

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