Virtual water-embodied carbon nexus in the new energy system: A case study of solar photovoltaic in China

Electricity production is associated with significant water resource consumption and carbon emissions. China's energy-related water consumption and CO2 emissions undergo dramatic changes with a transition from traditional fossil energy to renewable energy utilization, while the impacts of renewable energy on virtual water and embodied carbon emission have not been well understood. This study analyzes the nexus between virtual water and embodied carbon in China's electricity system, examining renewable energy's impact on water and carbon metrics under different substitution scenarios. This study reveals significant provincial disparities in photovoltaic deployment potential for replacing coal-fired power. Provinces like Beijing and Shanghai require interregional electricity transmission due to insufficient local PV potential, while Inner Mongolia and Tibet can achieve coal replacement by utilizing <5 % of their PV capacity. All provincial power grids will reduce the carbon emission intensity for power generation but not for water consumption intensity with the increase of solar PV substitution. In the long run, the substitution of solar PV contributes to a significant reduction in CO2 emissions and adjusts the embodied carbon network of the power system. This study provides insights for optimizing the virtual water and embodied carbon networks and promotes sustainable development of the power industry in China.