IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jeners/v12y2019i19p3704-d271599.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Exploring the Causal Nexus between Energy Consumption, Environmental Pollution and Economic Growth: Empirical Evidence from Central and Eastern Europe

Author

Listed:
  • Daniel Ştefan Armeanu

    (Department of Finance, The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, 6 Piata Romana, 010374 Bucharest, Romania)

  • Ştefan Cristian Gherghina

    (Department of Finance, The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, 6 Piata Romana, 010374 Bucharest, Romania)

  • George Pasmangiu

    (Department of Finance, The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, 6 Piata Romana, 010374 Bucharest, Romania)

Abstract

Energy is considered a critical driver of social and economic progress, but the use of conventional energy from fossil fuel sources is viewed as the main contributor to greenhouse gases that cause global warming. To overcome such issues, renewable energy technologies appeared as a viable substitute which lessens pollutant emissions and protect the environment. This paper investigates the impact of energy consumption and environmental pollution on economic growth, also exploring the causal associations, for a sample of 11 Central and Eastern European states over the period 2000 to 2016. The outcomes of panel data regressions indicate evidence of a non-linear link between renewable energy (both overall, as well as in form of hydro and wind power) and gross domestic product per capita growth. The non-linear relations were also established in case of alternative & nuclear energy and fossil fuel energy consumption. However, the influence of non-renewable energy on growth was not statistically significant, whereas greenhouse gases emissions exhibited mostly a positive impact on economic growth. The robustness checks by panel fully modified and dynamic ordinary least squares showed almost the similar pattern of results. The results of Granger causalities within six panel vector error correction models supported in the short-run the conservation hypothesis for renewable energy (overall), but also for hydro power and solid biofuels, excluding charcoal. In the long-run the growth hypothesis was established for renewable energy (overall), along with wind power, solid biofuels, excluding charcoal and geothermal energy. The findings imply that CEECs policy makers should consider imperative investments in the development of renewable energy sector.

Suggested Citation

  • Daniel Ştefan Armeanu & Ştefan Cristian Gherghina & George Pasmangiu, 2019. "Exploring the Causal Nexus between Energy Consumption, Environmental Pollution and Economic Growth: Empirical Evidence from Central and Eastern Europe," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(19), pages 1-27, September.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:12:y:2019:i:19:p:3704-:d:271599
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/12/19/3704/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/12/19/3704/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Andreas Georgantopoulos, 2012. "Electricity Consumption and Economic Growth: Analysis and Forecasts using VAR/VEC Approach for Greece with Capital Formation," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 2(4), pages 263-278.
    2. Narayan, Seema & Doytch, Nadia, 2017. "An investigation of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption and economic growth nexus using industrial and residential energy consumption," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 68(C), pages 160-176.
    3. Mohamed, Hassen & Ben Jebli, Mehdi & Ben Youssef, Slim, 2019. "Renewable and fossil energy, terrorism, economic growth, and trade: Evidence from France," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 139(C), pages 459-467.
    4. Gozgor, Giray & Lau, Chi Keung Marco & Lu, Zhou, 2018. "Energy consumption and economic growth: New evidence from the OECD countries," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 153(C), pages 27-34.
    5. Ozturk, Ilhan & Acaravci, Ali, 2010. "The causal relationship between energy consumption and GDP in Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania: Evidence from ARDL bound testing approach," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 87(6), pages 1938-1943, June.
    6. Al-mulali, Usama & Fereidouni, Hassan Gholipour & Lee, Janice Y.M., 2014. "Electricity consumption from renewable and non-renewable sources and economic growth: Evidence from Latin American countries," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 30(C), pages 290-298.
    7. Charfeddine, Lanouar & Kahia, Montassar, 2019. "Impact of renewable energy consumption and financial development on CO2 emissions and economic growth in the MENA region: A panel vector autoregressive (PVAR) analysis," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 139(C), pages 198-213.
    8. Alam, Md. Mahmudul & Murad, Md. Wahid, 2020. "The impacts of economic growth, trade openness and technological progress on renewable energy use in organization for economic co-operation and development countries," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 145(C), pages 382-390.
    9. Alper, Aslan & Oguz, Ocal, 2016. "The role of renewable energy consumption in economic growth: Evidence from asymmetric causality," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 60(C), pages 953-959.
    10. Katsuya Ito, 2016. "CO2 emissions, renewable and non-renewable energy consumption, and economic growth: evidence from panel data for developed countries," Economics Bulletin, AccessEcon, vol. 36(1), pages 553-559.
    11. Hamit-Haggar, Mahamat, 2012. "Greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption and economic growth: A panel cointegration analysis from Canadian industrial sector perspective," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 34(1), pages 358-364.
    12. Ozturk, Ilhan, 2010. "A literature survey on energy-growth nexus," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 38(1), pages 340-349, January.
    13. Bulut, Umit & Muratoglu, Gonul, 2018. "Renewable energy in Turkey: Great potential, low but increasing utilization, and an empirical analysis on renewable energy-growth nexus," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 123(C), pages 240-250.
    14. Razmi, Seyedeh Fatemeh & Ramezanian Bajgiran, Bahareh & Behname, Mehdi & Salari, Taghi Ebrahimi & Razmi, Seyed Mohammad Javad, 2020. "The relationship of renewable energy consumption to stock market development and economic growth in Iran," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 145(C), pages 2019-2024.
    15. Dmitry Burakov & Max Freidin, 2017. "Financial Development, Economic Growth and Renewable Energy Consumption in Russia: A Vector Error Correction Approach," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 7(6), pages 39-47.
    16. Apergis, Nicholas & Payne, James E., 2010. "Coal consumption and economic growth: Evidence from a panel of OECD countries," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 38(3), pages 1353-1359, March.
    17. Chen, Yulong & Zhao, Jincai & Lai, Zhizhu & Wang, Zheng & Xia, Haibin, 2019. "Exploring the effects of economic growth, and renewable and non-renewable energy consumption on China’s CO2 emissions: Evidence from a regional panel analysis," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 140(C), pages 341-353.
    18. Rafindadi, Abdulkadir Abdulrashid & Ozturk, Ilhan, 2017. "Impacts of renewable energy consumption on the German economic growth: Evidence from combined cointegration test," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 75(C), pages 1130-1141.
    19. Zaman, Khalid & Abdullah, Alias bin & Khan, Anwar & Nasir, Mohammad Rusdi bin Mohd & Hamzah, Tengku Adeline Adura Tengku & Hussain, Saddam, 2016. "Dynamic linkages among energy consumption, environment, health and wealth in BRICS countries: Green growth key to sustainable development," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 56(C), pages 1263-1271.
    20. Luqman, Muhammad & Ahmad, Najid & Bakhsh, Khuda, 2019. "Nuclear energy, renewable energy and economic growth in Pakistan: Evidence from non-linear autoregressive distributed lag model," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 139(C), pages 1299-1309.
    21. Ellabban, Omar & Abu-Rub, Haitham & Blaabjerg, Frede, 2014. "Renewable energy resources: Current status, future prospects and their enabling technology," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 39(C), pages 748-764.
    22. Inglesi-Lotz, Roula, 2016. "The impact of renewable energy consumption to economic growth: A panel data application," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 53(C), pages 58-63.
    23. Yi Hu & Dongmei Guo & Mingxi Wang & Xi Zhang & Shouyang Wang, 2015. "The Relationship between Energy Consumption and Economic Growth: Evidence from China’s Industrial Sectors," Energies, MDPI, vol. 8(9), pages 1-15, August.
    24. Kahia, Montassar & Ben Aïssa, Mohamed Safouane & Charfeddine, Lanouar, 2016. "Impact of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption on economic growth: New evidence from the MENA Net Oil Exporting Countries (NOECs)," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 116(P1), pages 102-115.
    25. Joel Alejandro Rosado & Mar a Isabel Alvarado S nchez, 2017. "The Influence of Economic Growth and Electric Consumption on Pollution in South America Countries," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 7(3), pages 121-126.
    26. Menegaki, Angeliki N., 2011. "Growth and renewable energy in Europe: A random effect model with evidence for neutrality hypothesis," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 33(2), pages 257-263, March.
    27. Kang, Sang Hoon & Islam, Faridul & Kumar Tiwari, Aviral, 2019. "The dynamic relationships among CO2 emissions, renewable and non-renewable energy sources, and economic growth in India: Evidence from time-varying Bayesian VAR model," Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Elsevier, vol. 50(C), pages 90-101.
    28. Lucio Guido Tapia Carpio, 2014. "Cointegration Relationships to Estimate the Marginal Cost of Deficit in Planning a Hydrothermal System: The Case of Brazil," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 4(2), pages 117-124.
    29. Aydin, Mucahit, 2019. "The effect of biomass energy consumption on economic growth in BRICS countries: A country-specific panel data analysis," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 138(C), pages 620-627.
    30. Destek, Mehmet Akif & Aslan, Alper, 2017. "Renewable and non-renewable energy consumption and economic growth in emerging economies: Evidence from bootstrap panel causality," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 111(C), pages 757-763.
    31. Apergis, Nicholas & Payne, James E., 2010. "Renewable energy consumption and economic growth: Evidence from a panel of OECD countries," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 38(1), pages 656-660, January.
    32. Unknown, 2016. "Energy for Sustainable Development," Conference Proceedings 253270, Guru Arjan Dev Institute of Development Studies (IDSAsr).
    33. Adams, Samuel & Klobodu, Edem Kwame Mensah & Apio, Alfred, 2018. "Renewable and non-renewable energy, regime type and economic growth," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 125(C), pages 755-767.
    34. Ocal, Oguz & Aslan, Alper, 2013. "Renewable energy consumption–economic growth nexus in Turkey," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 28(C), pages 494-499.
    35. Zafar, Muhammad Wasif & Shahbaz, Muhammad & Hou, Fujun & Sinha, Avik, 2018. "¬¬¬¬¬¬From Nonrenewable to Renewable Energy and Its Impact on Economic Growth: Silver Line of Research & Development Expenditures in APEC Countries," MPRA Paper 90611, University Library of Munich, Germany, revised 10 Dec 2018.
    36. Luciano Gutierrez, 2002. "On the power of panel cointegration tests: A Monte Carlo comparison. Economics Letters, 80(1):105-111," Econometrics 0211003, University Library of Munich, Germany, revised 20 May 2003.
    37. Cheratian, Iman & Goltabar, Saleh, 2017. "Energy Consumption and Regional Economic Growth: The Case of Iranian Manufacturing Sector," MPRA Paper 78315, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    38. Le, Thai-Ha & Nguyen, Canh Phuc, 2019. "Is energy security a driver for economic growth? Evidence from a global sample," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 129(C), pages 436-451.
    39. Tugcu, Can Tansel & Ozturk, Ilhan & Aslan, Alper, 2012. "Renewable and non-renewable energy consumption and economic growth relationship revisited: Evidence from G7 countries," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 34(6), pages 1942-1950.
    40. Aydin, Mucahit, 2019. "Renewable and non-renewable electricity consumption–economic growth nexus: Evidence from OECD countries," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 136(C), pages 599-606.
    41. Bhattacharya, Mita & Paramati, Sudharshan Reddy & Ozturk, Ilhan & Bhattacharya, Sankar, 2016. "The effect of renewable energy consumption on economic growth: Evidence from top 38 countries," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 162(C), pages 733-741.
    42. Taghizadeh-Hesary, Farhad & Yoshino, Naoyuki & Rasoulinezhad, Ehsan, 2017. "Impact of Fukushima Nuclear Disaster on Oil-Consuming Sectors of Japan," ADBI Working Papers 659, Asian Development Bank Institute.
    43. Tuna, Gülfen & Tuna, Vedat Ender, 2019. "The asymmetric causal relationship between renewable and NON-RENEWABLE energy consumption and economic growth in the ASEAN-5 countries," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 114-124.
    44. Gutierrez, Luciano, 2003. "On the power of panel cointegration tests: a Monte Carlo comparison," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 80(1), pages 105-111, July.
    45. Ozcan, Burcu & Ozturk, Ilhan, 2019. "Renewable energy consumption-economic growth nexus in emerging countries: A bootstrap panel causality test," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 104(C), pages 30-37.
    46. Marius-Corneliu Marinaș & Marin Dinu & Aura-Gabriela Socol & Cristian Socol, 2018. "Renewable energy consumption and economic growth. Causality relationship in Central and Eastern European countries," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 13(10), pages 1-29, October.
    47. Fan, Weiyang & Hao, Yu, 2020. "An empirical research on the relationship amongst renewable energy consumption, economic growth and foreign direct investment in China," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 146(C), pages 598-609.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Adriana Greco & Edison Gundabattini & Darius Gnanaraj Solomon & Raja Singh Rassiah & Claudia Masselli, 2022. "A Review on Geothermal Renewable Energy Systems for Eco-Friendly Air-Conditioning," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(15), pages 1-17, July.
    2. Chang, Chiu-Lan & Fang, Ming, 2022. "Renewable energy-led growth hypothesis: New insights from BRICS and N-11 economies," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 188(C), pages 788-800.
    3. Kassim, Fatima & Isik, Abdurrahman, 2020. "The link between energy consumption and economic growth: Evidence from transition economies (1985-2017)," MPRA Paper 101601, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    4. Anam Azam & Muhammad Rafiq & Muhammad Shafique & Muhammad Ateeq & Jiahai Yuan, 2020. "Causality Relationship Between Electricity Supply and Economic Growth: Evidence from Pakistan," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(4), pages 1-20, February.
    5. Pedro André Cerqueira & Elias Soukiazis & Sara Proença, 2021. "Assessing the linkages between recycling, renewable energy and sustainable development: evidence from the OECD countries," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 23(7), pages 9766-9791, July.
    6. Andreea Orîndaru & Maria-Floriana Popescu & Alina Petronela Alexoaei & Ștefan-Claudiu Căescu & Margareta Stela Florescu & Anca-Olguța Orzan, 2021. "Tourism in a Post-COVID-19 Era: Sustainable Strategies for Industry’s Recovery," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(12), pages 1-22, June.
    7. Mihaela Simionescu & Carmen Beatrice Păuna & Tiberiu Diaconescu, 2020. "Renewable Energy and Economic Performance in the Context of the European Green Deal," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(23), pages 1-19, December.
    8. Yazmín Yorely Rivera-Lugo & Kevin Isaac Pérez-Muñoz & Balter Trujillo-Navarrete & Carolina Silva-Carrillo & Edgar Alonso Reynoso-Soto & Julio Cesar Calva Yañez & Shui Wai Lin & José Roberto Flores-Her, 2020. "PtPd Hybrid Composite Catalysts as Cathodes for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(2), pages 1-12, January.
    9. Kamalova Mariyakhan & Elyas Abdulahi Mohamued & Muhammad Asif Khan & József Popp & Judit Oláh, 2020. "Does the Level of Absorptive Capacity Matter for Carbon Intensity? Evidence from the USA and China," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(2), pages 1-18, January.
    10. Wan-Jiun Chen, 2022. "Toward Sustainability: Dynamics of Total Carbon Dioxide Emissions, Aggregate Income, Non-Renewable Energy, and Renewable Power," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(5), pages 1-27, February.
    11. Roxana Voicu-Dorobanțu & Clara Volintiru & Maria-Floriana Popescu & Vlad Nerău & George Ștefan, 2021. "Tackling Complexity of the Just Transition in the EU: Evidence from Romania," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(5), pages 1-22, March.
    12. Constantin Anghelache & Mădălina Gabriela Anghel & Ștefan Virgil Iacob & Ion Pârțachi & Irina Gabriela Rădulescu & Alina Gabriela Brezoi, 2023. "Analysis of the Situation of Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Consumption in the European Union," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(3), pages 1-15, January.
    13. Diana D’Agostino & Francesco Esposito & Adriana Greco & Claudia Masselli & Francesco Minichiello, 2020. "Parametric Analysis on an Earth-to-Air Heat Exchanger Employed in an Air Conditioning System," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(11), pages 1-24, June.
    14. Simona Andreea Apostu & Mirela Panait & Daniel Balsalobre-Lorente & Diogo Ferraz & Irina Gabriela Rădulescu, 2022. "Energy Transition in Non-Euro Countries from Central and Eastern Europe: Evidence from Panel Vector Error Correction Model," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(23), pages 1-21, December.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Li, Raymond & Lee, Hazel, 2022. "The role of energy prices and economic growth in renewable energy capacity expansion – Evidence from OECD Europe," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 189(C), pages 435-443.
    2. Rahman, Mohammad Mafizur & Velayutham, Eswaran, 2020. "Renewable and non-renewable energy consumption-economic growth nexus: New evidence from South Asia," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 147(P1), pages 399-408.
    3. Doytch, Nadia & Narayan, Seema, 2021. "Does transitioning towards renewable energy accelerate economic growth? An analysis of sectoral growth for a dynamic panel of countries," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 235(C).
    4. Gyimah, Justice & Yao, Xilong & Tachega, Mark Awe & Sam Hayford, Isaac & Opoku-Mensah, Evans, 2022. "Renewable energy consumption and economic growth: New evidence from Ghana," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 248(C).
    5. Aslan, Alper & Ocal, Oguz & Ozsolak, Baki & Ozturk, Ilhan, 2022. "Renewable energy and economic growth relationship under the oil reserve ownership: Evidence from panel VAR approach," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 188(C), pages 402-410.
    6. Chang, Chiu-Lan & Fang, Ming, 2022. "Renewable energy-led growth hypothesis: New insights from BRICS and N-11 economies," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 188(C), pages 788-800.
    7. Papież, Monika & Śmiech, Sławomir & Frodyma, Katarzyna, 2019. "Effects of renewable energy sector development on electricity consumption – Growth nexus in the European Union," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 113(C), pages 1-1.
    8. Shahbaz, Muhammad & Raghutla, Chandrashekar & Chittedi, Krishna Reddy & Jiao, Zhilun & Vo, Xuan Vinh, 2020. "The effect of renewable energy consumption on economic growth: Evidence from the renewable energy country attractive index," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 207(C).
    9. Koçak, Emrah & Şarkgüneşi, Aykut, 2017. "The renewable energy and economic growth nexus in Black Sea and Balkan countries," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 100(C), pages 51-57.
    10. Huang, Jiashun & Li, Weiping & Guo, Lijia & Hu, Xi & Hall, Jim W., 2020. "Renewable energy and household economy in rural China," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 155(C), pages 669-676.
    11. Raggad, Bechir, 2021. "Time varying causal relationship between renewable energy consumption, oil prices and economic activity: New evidence from the United States," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 74(C).
    12. Marques, António Cardoso & Fuinhas, José Alberto & Neves, Sónia Almeida, 2018. "Ordinary and Special Regimes of electricity generation in Spain: How they interact with economic activity," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 81(P1), pages 1226-1240.
    13. Zafar, Muhammad Wasif & Shahbaz, Muhammad & Hou, Fujun & Sinha, Avik, 2018. "¬¬¬¬¬¬From Nonrenewable to Renewable Energy and Its Impact on Economic Growth: Silver Line of Research & Development Expenditures in APEC Countries," MPRA Paper 90611, University Library of Munich, Germany, revised 10 Dec 2018.
    14. Daniel Ştefan Armeanu & Georgeta Vintilă & Ştefan Cristian Gherghina, 2017. "Does Renewable Energy Drive Sustainable Economic Growth? Multivariate Panel Data Evidence for EU-28 Countries," Energies, MDPI, vol. 10(3), pages 1-21, March.
    15. Marius-Corneliu Marinaș & Marin Dinu & Aura-Gabriela Socol & Cristian Socol, 2018. "Renewable energy consumption and economic growth. Causality relationship in Central and Eastern European countries," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 13(10), pages 1-29, October.
    16. Chen, Yiyang & Mamon, Rogemar & Spagnolo, Fabio & Spagnolo, Nicola, 2022. "Renewable energy and economic growth: A Markov-switching approach," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 244(PB).
    17. Chen, Chaoyi & Pinar, Mehmet & Stengos, Thanasis, 2021. "Determinants of renewable energy consumption: Importance of democratic institutions," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 179(C), pages 75-83.
    18. Fangming Xie & Chuanzhe Liu & Huiying Chen & Ning Wang, 2018. "Threshold Effects of New Energy Consumption Transformation on Economic Growth," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 10(11), pages 1-14, November.
    19. Salari, Mahmoud & Kelly, Inas & Doytch, Nadia & Javid, Roxana J., 2021. "Economic growth and renewable and non-renewable energy consumption: Evidence from the U.S. states," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 178(C), pages 50-65.
    20. Bilgili, Faik & Kuşkaya, Sevda & Toğuç, Nurhan & Muğaloğlu, Erhan & Koçak, Emrah & Bulut, Ümit & Bağlıtaş, H. Hilal, 2019. "A revisited renewable consumption-growth nexus: A continuous wavelet approach through disaggregated data," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 107(C), pages 1-19.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:12:y:2019:i:19:p:3704-:d:271599. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.