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Political Inequality

Author

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  • Julia Cagé

    (ECON - Département d'économie (Sciences Po) - Sciences Po - Sciences Po - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, CEPR - Center for Economic Policy Research)

Abstract

Inequality in political participation and influence has strongly increased in recent decades, breeding economic inequality. In this review, we focus on three aspects of political inequality: the increasing concentration of both political and charitable donations, the growing gap in descriptive representation, and the persistent lack of substantive representation. Based on the existing literature as well as on novel evidence, we relate these aspects to the recent widening of turnout inequality. We then examine novel forms of participation—e.g., the rise of small donors in the United States—and the efficiency of policies aimed at improving representation. Finally, we discuss new avenues for research.

Suggested Citation

  • Julia Cagé, 2024. "Political Inequality," Post-Print hal-05446439, HAL.
    • Handle: RePEc:hal:journl:hal-05446439
    DOI: 10.1146/annurev-economics-080223-040921
    Note: View the original document on HAL open archive server: https://sciencespo.hal.science/hal-05446439v1
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Bekkouche, Yasmine & Cagé, Julia & Dewitte, Edgard, 2022. "The heterogeneous price of a vote: Evidence from multiparty systems, 1993–2017," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 206(C).
    2. Carnes, Nicholas & Lupu, Noam, 2016. "Do Voters Dislike Working-Class Candidates? Voter Biases and the Descriptive Underrepresentation of the Working Class," American Political Science Review, Cambridge University Press, vol. 110(4), pages 832-844, November.
    3. Julia Cagé & Malka Guillot, 2021. "Is Charitable Giving Political? Evidence from Wealth and Income Tax Returns," Working Papers hal-03877993, HAL.
    4. Stefano Gagliarducci & M Daniele Paserman, 2022. "Gender Differences in Cooperative Environments? Evidence from The U.S. Congress," The Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 132(641), pages 218-257.
    5. Helios Herrera & Massimo Morelli & Salvatore Nunnari, 2016. "Turnout Across Democracies," American Journal of Political Science, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 60(3), pages 607-624, July.
    6. James G. Gimpel & Frances E. Lee & Shanna Pearson‐Merkowitz, 2008. "The Check Is in the Mail: Interdistrict Funding Flows in Congressional Elections," American Journal of Political Science, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 52(2), pages 373-394, April.
    7. Peter Aranson & Melvin Hinich, 1979. "Some aspects of the political economy of election campaign contribution laws," Public Choice, Springer, vol. 34(3), pages 435-461, September.
    8. Lim, Claire & Snyder, James, 2021. "What Shapes the Quality and Behavior of Government Offcials? Institutional Variation in Selection and Retention Methods," CEPR Discussion Papers 15675, Centre for Economic Policy Research.
    9. Gerber, Alan, 1998. "Estimating the Effect of Campaign Spending on Senate Election Outcomes Using Instrumental Variables," American Political Science Review, Cambridge University Press, vol. 92(2), pages 401-411, June.
    10. Brian Beach & Daniel B. Jones & Tate Twinam & Randall Walsh, 2018. "Minority Representation in Local Government," NBER Working Papers 25192, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    11. David P. Baron, 1989. "Service-Induced Campaign Contributions and the Electoral Equilibrium," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 104(1), pages 45-72.
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    Cited by:

    1. Parmigiani, Alberto, 2025. "Campaign contributions and legislative behavior: Evidence from U.S. Congress," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 243(C).
    2. Valentino Larcinese & Alberto Parmigiani, 2026. "Income Inequality and Campaign Contributions: Evidence from the 1986 Reagan Tax Cut," CESifo Working Paper Series 12574, CESifo.
    3. Parmigiani, Alberto, 2025. "Campaign contributions and legislative behavior: evidence from U.S. congress," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 127295, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library.

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    Keywords

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    JEL classification:

    • D72 - Microeconomics - - Analysis of Collective Decision-Making - - - Political Processes: Rent-seeking, Lobbying, Elections, Legislatures, and Voting Behavior
    • L38 - Industrial Organization - - Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise - - - Public Policy
    • N3 - Economic History - - Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy
    • J15 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants; Non-labor Discrimination

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