IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jsusta/v17y2025i9p4127-d1648426.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Comprehensive Ecotoxicity of the Complex System of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Sites to Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) During Microbial Remediation

Author

Listed:
  • Xiaoli Du

    (Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, School of Environment and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
    Beijing Energy Conservation & Sustainable Urban and Rural Development Provincial and Ministry Co-Construction National Collaboration Innovation Center, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China)

  • Wenqian Sun

    (Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, School of Environment and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China)

  • Xiaolu Liu

    (Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, School of Environment and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China)

  • Zhongwen Chi

    (Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, School of Environment and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China)

  • Huihui Sheng

    (Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, School of Environment and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China)

  • Fei Liu

    (Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, School of Environment and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China)

Abstract

Microbial remediation is an eco-friendly and cost-effective method for treating organic-contaminated soil, essential for sustainable land use due to its minimal secondary pollution and operational simplicity. However, during the degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the formation of polar or toxic intermediate metabolites can lead to unpredictable ecotoxicological impacts. In this study, we investigated the effects of the microbial remediation of organic-contaminated soils on wheat seedling growth and physiology, and evaluated soil ecotoxicity throughout the remediation process. The results showed that the concentrations of benzo[a]anthracene (BaA) and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) decreased by 70.4% and 49.9%, respectively, following microbial degradation, with the degradation process following a second-order kinetic model. Despite the reduction in pollutants, soil toxicity increased from days 10 to 20, peaked on day 20, and then gradually decreased, but it remained elevated throughout the remediation process. Increased ecotoxicity inhibited wheat seed germination, seedling growth, and chlorophyll content, induced oxidative stress, and suppressed soil enzyme activity. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis identified toxic intermediate metabolites as the primary contributors to enhanced ecotoxicity. Wheat seed germination potential, plant height, root length, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity in roots can effectively indicate soil ecotoxicity throughout the microbial remediation process. These parameters facilitate the optimization of remediation strategies to ensure restored soil functionality and long-term ecological sustainability.

Suggested Citation

  • Xiaoli Du & Wenqian Sun & Xiaolu Liu & Zhongwen Chi & Huihui Sheng & Fei Liu, 2025. "Comprehensive Ecotoxicity of the Complex System of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Sites to Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) During Microbial Remediation," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(9), pages 1-20, May.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:9:p:4127-:d:1648426
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/17/9/4127/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/17/9/4127/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Haihua Jiao & Qi Wang & Nana Zhao & Bo Jin & Xuliang Zhuang & Zhihui Bai, 2017. "Distributions and Sources of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Soils around a Chemical Plant in Shanxi, China," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 14(10), pages 1-19, October.
    2. Xin Sui & Xuemei Wang & Yuhuan Li & Hongbing Ji, 2021. "Remediation of Petroleum-Contaminated Soils with Microbial and Microbial Combined Methods: Advances, Mechanisms, and Challenges," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(16), pages 1-26, August.
    3. Zhu, Mengjie & Wang, Quanjiu & Sun, Yan & Zhang, Jihong, 2021. "Effects of oxygenated brackish water on germination and growth characteristics of wheat," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 245(C).
    4. Hongtao Yu & Qingsu Xia & Jian Yan & Diogenes Herreno-Saenz & Yuh-Shen Wu & I-Wah Tang & Peter P. Fu, 2006. "Photoirradiation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons with UVA Light – A Pathway Leading to the Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species, Lipid Peroxidation, and DNA Damage," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 3(4), pages 1-7, December.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Wang, Tianyu & Wang, Zhenhua & Zhang, Jinzhu & Ma, Kai, 2023. "Application effect of different oxygenation methods with mulched drip irrigation system in Xinjiang," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 275(C).
    2. Huanling Wu & Binghua Sun & Jinhua Li, 2019. "Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Sediments/Soils of the Rapidly Urbanized Lower Reaches of the River Chaohu, China," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 16(13), pages 1-16, June.
    3. Tatyana Korshunova & Elena Kuzina & Svetlana Mukhamatdyarova & Yuliyana Sharipova & Milyausha Iskuzhina, 2023. "Promising Strains of Hydrocarbon-Oxidizing Pseudomonads with Herbicide Resistance and Plant Growth-Stimulating Properties for Bioremediation of Oil-Contaminated Agricultural Soils," Agriculture, MDPI, vol. 13(6), pages 1-21, May.
    4. Sławomir Józef Krzebietke & Ewa Mackiewicz-Walec & Stanisław Sienkiewicz & Jadwiga Wierzbowska & Dariusz Załuski & Agata Borowik, 2022. "Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Soil at Different Depths under a Long-Term Experiment Depending on Fertilization," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(16), pages 1-13, August.
    5. Cheng, Minghui & Wang, Haidong & Fan, Junliang & Wang, Xiukang & Sun, Xin & Yang, Ling & Zhang, Shaohui & Xiang, Youzhen & Zhang, Fucang, 2021. "Crop yield and water productivity under salty water irrigation: A global meta-analysis," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 256(C).
    6. Yuyang Shan & Yan Sun & Wanghai Tao & Lijun Su, 2023. "Effects of Oxygenated Brackish Water on Pakchoi ( Brassica chinensis L.) Growth Characteristics Based on a Logistic Crop Growth Model," Agriculture, MDPI, vol. 13(7), pages 1-17, July.
    7. Rimas Meištininkas & Irena Vaškevičienė & Agnieszka I. Piotrowicz-Cieślak & Magdalena Krupka & Jūratė Žaltauskaitė, 2024. "Sustainable Recovery of the Health of Soil with Old Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contamination through Individual and Microorganism-Assisted Phytoremediation with Lotus corniculatus," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 16(17), pages 1-19, August.
    8. Krystyna Ciarkowska & Messias de Carvalho & Florian Gambus, 2022. "Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Sources and Vertical Distribution in Soils of the Age-Diverse Brownfields of Southern Poland Using Positive Matrix Factorisation and Data Mining Mod," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(21), pages 1-16, October.
    9. Aleksandra Góralczyk-Bińkowska & Andrzej Długoński & Przemysław Bernat & Jerzy Długoński & Anna Jasińska, 2022. "Accelerated PAH Transformation in the Presence of Dye Industry Landfill Leachate Combined with Fungal Membrane Lipid Changes," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(21), pages 1-19, October.
    10. Hussein Khaeim & Zoltán Kende & István Balla & Csaba Gyuricza & Adnan Eser & Ákos Tarnawa, 2022. "The Effect of Temperature and Water Stresses on Seed Germination and Seedling Growth of Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.)," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(7), pages 1-21, March.
    11. Ewelina Zając & Monika J. Fabiańska & Elżbieta Jędrszczyk & Tomasz Skalski, 2022. "Hydrocarbon Degradation and Microbial Survival Improvement in Response to γ-Polyglutamic Acid Application," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(22), pages 1-17, November.
    12. Ahmad Azeem & Wenxuan Mai, 2024. "Mathematical Modeling for Predicting Growth and Yield of Halophyte Hedysarum scoparium in Arid Regions under Variable Irrigation and Soil Amendment Conditions," Resources, MDPI, vol. 13(8), pages 1-16, August.
    13. Li Ji & Wenwen Li & Yuan Li & Qiusheng He & Yonghong Bi & Minghua Zhang & Guixiang Zhang & Xinming Wang, 2022. "Spatial Distribution, Potential Sources, and Health Risk of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Surface Soils under Different Land-Use Covers of Shanxi Province, North China," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(19), pages 1-14, September.
    14. Di Wang & Jing Ma & Hao Li & Xingchang Zhang, 2018. "Concentration and Potential Ecological Risk of PAHs in Different Layers of Soil in the Petroleum-Contaminated Areas of the Loess Plateau, China," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 15(8), pages 1-15, August.
    15. Jeongjun Park & Gigwon Hong, 2022. "Simulation on the Permeability Evaluation of a Hybrid Liner for the Prevention of Contaminant Diffusion in Soils Contaminated with Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(20), pages 1-17, October.
    16. Dariusz Roman Ropek & Janina Gospodarek, 2022. "Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema feltiae as an Indicator of Soil Pollution with Oil Derivatives in Bioremediation Process," Agriculture, MDPI, vol. 12(12), pages 1-11, November.
    17. Cristina Cavone & Pamela Monaco & Francesca Fantasma & Pietro Rizzo & Chiara Tarracchini & Silvia Petraro & Marco Ventura & Christian Milani & Fulvio Celico & Gino Naclerio & Antonio Bucci, 2025. "Natural Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Springs as a Reservoir of Microorganisms Useful for Bioremediation: Isolation and Multilevel Analysis of Hydrocarbonoclastic Bacteria from the Agri Valley (Southern It," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(7), pages 1-25, March.
    18. Mohammad Mahdi Dorafshan & Jahangir Abedi-Koupai & Saeid Eslamian & Mohammad Javad Amiri, 2023. "Vetiver Grass ( Chrysopogon zizanoides L.): A Hyper-Accumulator Crop for Bioremediation of Unconventional Water," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(4), pages 1-16, February.
    19. Yilin Yao & Jingyi Li & Hanhan Xue & Yutong Liu & Junpeng Qiao & Jingchun Tang & Rutao Liu & Qigui Niu, 2022. "Influences of Naphthalene Concentration on Starch Anaerobic Digestion: Focusing on Digestion Performance, Extracellular Polymeric Substances and Function Microbial Community," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(24), pages 1-15, December.
    20. Hui-Chan Chen & Qingsu Xia & Shu-Hui Cherng & Shoujun Chen & Ching-Cheng Lai & Hongtao Yu & Peter P. Fu, 2007. "Synthesis and Photoirradiation of Isomeric Ethylchrysenes by UVA Light Leading to Lipid Peroxidation," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 4(2), pages 1-8, June.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:9:p:4127-:d:1648426. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.