From Sustainability to Regeneration: A Systems Approach to Mountain Forestscape Restoration

Mountain forestscapes are among the planet’s most vital socio-ecological systems, functioning as critical reservoirs of biodiversity, regulators of climate, and essential sources of water and livelihood for surrounding and downstream communities. However, these landscapes face intensifying threats from climate change, land-use transformation, resource extraction, unsustainable tourism, and fragmented governance. While sustainable forest management has provided essential frameworks for conservation, its focus on maintaining existing conditions is increasingly insufficient amid accelerating ecological and social decline. This paper explores the conceptual and practical evolution from sustainability to regeneration in mountain forest management, distinguishing between the theoretical foundations of each paradigm and analyzing the key drivers of degradation across diverse biocultural regions. Methodologically, the study employs a transdisciplinary and qualitative design, integrating critical literature synthesis, comparative regional analysis, and Indigenous and local knowledge systems. A structured review of 72 peer-reviewed sources and ethnographic materials was conducted, combined with a qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) of mountain case studies from the Alps, Carpathians, Andes, Eastern Arc Mountains, and Himalayas. The study synthesizes regenerative strategies such as ecological connectivity restoration, agroecological landscape design, participatory watershed management, and adaptive, polycentric governance. Based on these insights, an integrated framework for regenerative mountain forestscape management is proposed, aligned with global policy agendas including the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, nature-based solutions (NbS), and the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. By prioritizing ecological renewal, cultural continuity, and community agency, this work contributes to transformative, place-based approaches that restore the functionality, resilience, and integrity of mountain landscapes.