Eco-Design in Manufacturing or Remanufacturing? The Sustainable Options in a Closed-Loop Supply Chain with Outsourcing

Here, the authors focused on determining the increase in consumers’ preferences for sustainable products, including that of OEMs, who are responsible for the drop in new product sales. We also assessed the effects of remanufacturing by outsourcing to third-party remanufacturers. However, the outsourcing of remanufacturing not only enables the producer to offer a remanufactured product at the same time as manufacturing new units; it also provides OEMs with the flexibility required to peruse eco-design in manufacturing and/or remanufacturing. For instance, Gree and Midea have heavily invested in eco-design to reduce energy costs in manufacturing, while Xerox has adopted a modular design approach to divert materials away from landfills and towards remanufacturing. Following observations of real-world applications, the authors developed two theoretical models in which remanufacturing can be outsourced to an independent remanufacturer, endowing the OEM with the flexibility required to enact eco-design in manufacturing or remanufacturing. This analysis reveals that OEMs tend to put more effort into eco-design in manufacturing than in remanufacturing. Furthermore, such efforts in the name of eco-design may be beneficial for both the OEM and the third-party remanufacturer. As such, this paper encourages governments to provide more incentives that will encourage OEMs to invest in eco-design in manufacturing and establish a possible “win–win” scenario in terms of both environmental and economic performances.