Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Salt-Affected Soils: Mechanistic Understanding of Interplay Factors and Reclamation Approaches

Salt-affected soils contain high levels of soluble salts (saline soil) and exchangeable sodium (alkali soil). Globally, about 932 million ha (Mha), including 831 Mha of agricultural land, is salt-affected. Salinity and sodicity adversely affect soil microbial diversity and enzymatic activities, and thereby carbon and nitrogen dynamics and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from soils. In this review article, we synthesize published information to understand the impact of salinity and sodicity on GHG production and emissions from salt-affected soils, and how various reclamation amendments (gypsum, phosphogypsum, organic manure, biochar, etc.) affect GHG emissions from reclaimed soils. Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) and methane (CH 4 ) emissions are of greater concern due to their 298 and 28 times higher global warming potential, respectively, compared to carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), on a 100-year time scale. Therefore, CO 2 emissions are given negligible/smaller significance compared to the other two. Generally, nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions are higher at lower salinity and reduced at higher salinity mainly due to: (a) higher ammonification and lower nitrification resulting in a reduced substrate for denitrification; (b) reduced diversity of denitrifying bacteria lowered down microbial-mediated denitrification process; and (c) dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), and denitrification processes compete with each other for common substrate/nitrate. Overall, methane (CH 4 ) emissions from normal soils are higher than those of salt-affected soils. High salinity suppresses the activity of both methanogens (CH 4 production) and methanotrophs (CH 4 consumption). However, it imposes more inhibitory effects on methanogens than methanotrophs, resulting in lower CH 4 production and subsequent emissions from these soils. Therefore, reclamation of these soils may enhance N 2 O and CH 4 emissions. However, gypsum is the best reclamation agent, which significantly mitigates CH 4 emissions from paddy cultivation in both sodic and non-sodic soils, and mitigation is higher at the higher rate of its application. Gypsum amendment increases sulfate ion concentrations and reduces CH 4 emissions mainly due to the inhibition of the methanogenesis by the sulfate reductase bacteria and the enhancement of soil redox potential. Biochar is also good among the organic amendments mitigating both CH 4 and N 2 O emission from salt-affected soils. The application of fresh organic matter and FYM enhance GHG emissions for these soils. This review suggests the need for systematic investigations for studying the impacts of various amendments and reclamation technologies on GHG emissions in order to develop low carbon emission technologies for salt-affected soil reclamation that can enhance the carbon sequestration potential of these soils.