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Effects of COVID-19 Financial and Social Hardships on Infants’ and Toddlers’ Development in the ECHO Program

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  • Sara S. Nozadi

    (Community Environmental Health Program, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA)

  • Ximin Li

    (Department of Biostatistics, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA)

  • Xiangrong Kong

    (Department of Biostatistics, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
    Wilmer Eye Institute, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21087, USA)

  • Brandon Rennie

    (Department of Pediatrics, Center for Development and Disability, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87107, USA)

  • Deborah Kanda

    (Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA)

  • Debra MacKenzie

    (Community Environmental Health Program, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA)

  • Li Luo

    (Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA)

  • Jonathan Posner

    (Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Duke University School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC 27705, USA)

  • Courtney K. Blackwell

    (Department of Medical Social Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA)

  • Lisa A. Croen

    (Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Oakland, CA 94612, USA)

  • Assiamira Ferrara

    (Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Oakland, CA 94612, USA)

  • Thomas G. O’Connor

    (School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA)

  • Emily Zimmerman

    (Department of Communication Sciences and Disorder, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA)

  • Akhgar Ghassabian

    (Department of Pediatrics, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA)

  • Leslie D. Leve

    (Department of Counseling Psychology, College of Education, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA)

  • Amy J. Elliott

    (Department of Pediatrics, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, Sioux Falls, SD 57105, USA
    Avera Research Institute, Sioux Falls, SD 57108, USA)

  • Rebecca J. Schmidt

    (Department of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA)

  • Jenna L. N. Sprowles

    (Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
    International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health, Durham, NC 27713, USA)

  • Johnnye L. Lewis

    (Community Environmental Health Program, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA)

Abstract

Background: The financial hardships and social isolation experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic have been found to adversely affect children’s developmental outcomes. While many studies thus far have focused on school-aged children and the pandemic-related impacts on their academic skills and behavior problems, relatively less is known about pandemic hardships and associations with children’s development during their early years. Using a racially and economically diverse sample, we examined whether hardships experienced during the pandemic were associated with children’s development with a particular focus on communication and socioemotional development. Methods: Participants from eight cohorts of the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes program provided data on pandemic-related financial and social hardships as well as child developmental outcomes. Financial hardship was defined as at least one parent experiencing job loss or change, and social hardship was defined as families’ quarantining from household members or extended family and friends. The development of children under 4 was assessed longitudinally, before and during the pandemic (N = 684), using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ). The Generalized Estimating Equations, which accounted for within-child correlation, were used for analysis. Results: Families from minority backgrounds and low socioeconomic status disproportionately experienced pandemic-related hardships. Male children had higher odds of experiencing negative changes in communication and personal social skills from pre- to during-pandemic visits (ORs ranged between 2.24 and 3.03 in analysis with binary ASQ outcomes and ranged from −0.34–0.36 in analyses with ASQ z-scores, p s = 0.000). Pandemic-related hardships in the social and financial areas did not explain within-individual changes in children’s developmental outcomes. Conclusion: Negative developmental changes from pre- to during-pandemic were found in boys, yet we did not find any associations between increased experience of pandemic-related hardships and children’s development. E how pandemic hardships affect development using a larger sample size and with longer follow-up is warranted.

Suggested Citation

  • Sara S. Nozadi & Ximin Li & Xiangrong Kong & Brandon Rennie & Deborah Kanda & Debra MacKenzie & Li Luo & Jonathan Posner & Courtney K. Blackwell & Lisa A. Croen & Assiamira Ferrara & Thomas G. O’Conno, 2023. "Effects of COVID-19 Financial and Social Hardships on Infants’ and Toddlers’ Development in the ECHO Program," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(2), pages 1-14, January.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:20:y:2023:i:2:p:1013-:d:1026710
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Gema Zamarro & María J. Prados, 2021. "Gender differences in couples’ division of childcare, work and mental health during COVID-19," Review of Economics of the Household, Springer, vol. 19(1), pages 11-40, March.
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