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Dietary Exposure to United States Food and Drug Administration-Approved Synthetic Food Colors in Children, Pregnant Women, and Women of Childbearing Age Living in the United States

Author

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  • Asa Bradman

    (Center for Environmental Research and Community Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, 1995 University Avenue, Suite 265, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA
    Department of Public Health, School of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Art, University of California at Merced, 5200 N. Lake Road, Merced, CA 95343, USA)

  • Rosemary Castorina

    (Center for Environmental Research and Community Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, 1995 University Avenue, Suite 265, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA)

  • Ruwan Thilakaratne

    (Center for Environmental Research and Community Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, 1995 University Avenue, Suite 265, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA)

  • Mayela Gillan

    (Center for Environmental Research and Community Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, 1995 University Avenue, Suite 265, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA)

  • Teja Pattabhiraman

    (Center for Environmental Research and Community Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, 1995 University Avenue, Suite 265, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA)

  • Anuroop Nirula

    (Center for Environmental Research and Community Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, 1995 University Avenue, Suite 265, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA)

  • Melanie Marty

    (California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, 1515 Clay Street, 16th Floor, Oakland, CA 94612, USA)

  • Mark D. Miller

    (California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, 1515 Clay Street, 16th Floor, Oakland, CA 94612, USA)

Abstract

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates artificial food colors (AFCs) in the United States. Exposure to AFCs has raised concerns about adverse behavioral effects in children. We quantified AFC exposure in women of childbearing age, pregnant women, and children and compared them to FDA and World Health Organization acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). We estimated the “typical” and “high” single-day and two-day average dietary exposure to each AFC (mg/kg/day) based on laboratory measurements and food consumption data from the 2015–2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). We also examined whether AFC intake differed by income, education, and ethnicity. Exposure tended to be higher in children and the highest AFC exposure was found for Red No. 40. Children’s mean and 95th percentile FD&C Red No. 3 estimated intakes exceeded the ADIs in some instances. Juice drinks, soft drinks, icings, and ice cream cones were major foods contributing to children’s (<16 years old) AFC exposure. AFC intake was higher in participants with lower incomes and education and of African American ethnicity. The findings indicate widespread AFC exposure including in very young children. Research is needed on the sociodemographic determinants of exposure and AFC toxicokinetics to better describe the absorption and organ-specific exposure.

Suggested Citation

  • Asa Bradman & Rosemary Castorina & Ruwan Thilakaratne & Mayela Gillan & Teja Pattabhiraman & Anuroop Nirula & Melanie Marty & Mark D. Miller, 2022. "Dietary Exposure to United States Food and Drug Administration-Approved Synthetic Food Colors in Children, Pregnant Women, and Women of Childbearing Age Living in the United States," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(15), pages 1-16, August.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:19:y:2022:i:15:p:9661-:d:881243
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Hilmers, A. & Hilmers, D.C. & Dave, J., 2012. "Neighborhood disparities in access to healthy foods and their effects on environmental justice," American Journal of Public Health, American Public Health Association, vol. 102(9), pages 1644-1654.
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