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Solid Wastes from Geothermal Energy Production and Implications for Direct Lithium Extraction

Author

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  • William T. Stringfellow

    (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Energy Geoscience Division, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
    School of Engineering and Computer Science, University of the Pacific, 3601 Pacific Ave., Stockton, CA 95211, USA)

  • Mary Kay Camarillo

    (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Energy Geoscience Division, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
    School of Engineering and Computer Science, University of the Pacific, 3601 Pacific Ave., Stockton, CA 95211, USA)

Abstract

Direct lithium extraction (DLE) of brines after geothermal power production offers opportunities to produce environmentally benign “green” lithium; however, some environmental impact is inevitable. We examined solid waste production at geothermal power plants in southern California that are also locations for planned DLE facilities. Currently, the geothermal plants in this region produce approximately 79,800 metric tons (wet weight) per year of solid waste, which represents about 28 metric tons per GWh of net electricity production or approximately 500 mg solids per kg geothermal brine. Approximately 15% of this waste requires management as hazardous waste. Solids produced during power production represent about 0.2% of the total dissolved solids in the brine. Lithium production will require the removal of silica, iron, and other metals as part of the DLE process. Using a mass balance approach, we calculate that precipitation of silica and metals could produce up to an additional 6800 mg solids per kg brine. Calcium occurs at very high concentrations, and the amount of solids disposed in landfills will be dependent on the amount of calcium removed during lithium recovery. Our analysis shows that evaluation of brine chemistry in the context of the DLE process is useful for evaluating the potential solid waste impacts of producing lithium from brines.

Suggested Citation

  • William T. Stringfellow & Mary Kay Camarillo, 2025. "Solid Wastes from Geothermal Energy Production and Implications for Direct Lithium Extraction," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(6), pages 1-17, March.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:18:y:2025:i:6:p:1359-:d:1609079
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Laurence Kavanagh & Jerome Keohane & Guiomar Garcia Cabellos & Andrew Lloyd & John Cleary, 2018. "Global Lithium Sources—Industrial Use and Future in the Electric Vehicle Industry: A Review," Resources, MDPI, vol. 7(3), pages 1-29, September.
    2. Sigurjónsson, Hafþór Ægir & Cook, David & Davíðsdóttir, Brynhildur & Bogason, Sigurður G., 2021. "A life-cycle analysis of deep enhanced geothermal systems – The case studies of Reykjanes, Iceland and Vendenheim, France," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 177(C), pages 1076-1086.
    3. Sun, Xin & Hao, Han & Zhao, Fuquan & Liu, Zongwei, 2017. "Tracing global lithium flow: A trade-linked material flow analysis," Resources, Conservation & Recycling, Elsevier, vol. 124(C), pages 50-61.
    4. János Szanyi & Ladislaus Rybach & Hawkar A. Abdulhaq, 2023. "Geothermal Energy and Its Potential for Critical Metal Extraction—A Review," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(20), pages 1-28, October.
    5. Pranjal Barman & Lachit Dutta & Brian Azzopardi, 2023. "Electric Vehicle Battery Supply Chain and Critical Materials: A Brief Survey of State of the Art," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(8), pages 1-23, April.
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