IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/joecag/v32y2025ics2212828x25000520.html

Lifecycle analysis of the gender gap in paid and unpaid work by household structure

Author

Listed:
  • Abio, Gemma
  • Patxot, Ció
  • Rentería, Elisenda
  • Souto, Guadalupe
  • Istenič, Tanja

Abstract

The paper provides new insights into men and women’s lifetime contributions to the overall economy and societal well-being, taking both market and non-market activities into account. It extends the National Transfer Accounts (NTA) and National Time Transfer Accounts (NTTA) methodologies by including household structure – specifically, partnership and parenthood status – in the analysis. Using Spain as a case study, the results reveal the need to consider family characteristics to fully understand gendered patterns of economic production. Three synthetic indicators are defined that permit new insights concerning the well-documented gender gap. Interestingly, this gap is already present in singles (single women spend more time doing housework), reinforced in childless couples (by the division of labour) and most apparent when children are present. Visible in the indicator of family generosity, the latter dimension also shows the existence of a sizeable ‘parenthood gap’. Addressing both gaps is particularly urgent in the context of accelerated population ageing given the potential implications it holds for fertility, care provision, and intergenerational support.

Suggested Citation

  • Abio, Gemma & Patxot, Ció & Rentería, Elisenda & Souto, Guadalupe & Istenič, Tanja, 2025. "Lifecycle analysis of the gender gap in paid and unpaid work by household structure," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 32(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:joecag:v:32:y:2025:i:c:s2212828x25000520
    DOI: 10.1016/j.jeoa.2025.100597
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212828X25000520
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.jeoa.2025.100597?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Guadalupe Souto & Alfonso Herranz-Loncán & Sergio Espuelas & Gemma Abio & Ció Patxot, 2025. "The Elderly Bias of the Spanish Welfare State (1958–2012)," European Review of Economic History, European Historical Economics Society, vol. 29(2), pages 186-215.
    2. Doepke, M. & Tertilt, M., 2016. "Families in Macroeconomics," Handbook of Macroeconomics, in: J. B. Taylor & Harald Uhlig (ed.), Handbook of Macroeconomics, edition 1, volume 2, chapter 0, pages 1789-1891, Elsevier.
    3. Abio, Gemma & Patxot, Concepció & Souto, Guadalupe & Istenič, Tanja, 2021. "The role of gender, education and family in the welfare organization: Disaggregating National Transfer Accounts," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 20(C).
    4. Rosero-Bixby, Luis, 2024. "Socioeconomic inequalities in national transfers accounts in Ecuador 2006 and 2011: Did a new socialist government make a difference?," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 27(C).
    5. Patricia Apps & Ray Rees, 2005. "Gender, Time Use, and Public Policy over the Life Cycle," Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Oxford University Press and Oxford Review of Economic Policy Limited, vol. 21(3), pages 439-461, Autumn.
    6. Oosthuizen, Morné, 2024. "Education and South Africa’s waning demographic dividend," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 27(C).
    7. Lili Vargha & Róbert Iván Gál & Michelle O. Crosby-Nagy, 2017. "Household production and consumption over the life cycle: National Time Transfer Accounts in 14 European countries," Demographic Research, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany, vol. 36(32), pages 905-944.
    8. Emilio Zagheni & Marina Zannella, 2013. "The life cycle dimension of time transfers in Europe," Demographic Research, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany, vol. 29(35), pages 937-948.
    9. Elisenda Rentería & Rosario Scandurra & Guadalupe Souto & Concepció Patxot, 2016. "Intergenerational money and time transfers by gender in Spain: Who are the actual dependents?," Demographic Research, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany, vol. 34(24), pages 689-704.
    10. Auerbach, Alan J. & Kotlikoff, Laurence J. & Leibfritz, Willi (ed.), 1999. "Generational Accounting around the World," National Bureau of Economic Research Books, University of Chicago Press, edition 1, number 9780226032139, August.
    11. Gemma Abio & Concepció Patxot & Elisenda Rentería & Guadalupe Souto, 2017. "Intergenerational Transfers in Spain: The Role of Education," Hacienda Pública Española / Review of Public Economics, IEF, vol. 223(4), pages 101-130, December.
    12. Alan J. Auerbach & Laurence J. Kotlikoff & Willi Leibfritz, 1999. "The Methodology of Generational Accounting," NBER Chapters, in: Generational Accounting around the World, pages 31-42, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    13. Rubiano Matulevich,Eliana Carolina & Viollaz,Mariana, 2019. "Gender Differences in Time Use : Allocating Time between the Market and the Household," Policy Research Working Paper Series 8981, The World Bank.
    14. Bucheli, Marisa & González, Cecilia, 2024. "Investment in human capital by socioeconomic status in Uruguay," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 27(C).
    15. Mejía-Guevara, Iván & Fuentes, María Estela Rivero, 2024. "Intergenerational paid and unpaid labor production and consumption inequality by gender in Mexico," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 27(C).
    16. Kelin, Ema & Istenič, Tanja & Sambt, Jože, 2023. "The role of educational attainment in production and transfers in the form of unpaid household work," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 26(C).
    17. Rentería, Elisenda & Souto, Guadalupe & Istenič, Tanja & Sambt, Jože, 2024. "Generational economic dependency in aging Europe: Contribution of education and population changes," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 27(C).
    18. Choo, Eddie & Gee, Christopher, 2024. "Age and education effects in Singapore’s demographic dividend 1970–2020," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 27(C).
    19. Dominique Anxo & Letizia Mencarini & Ariane Pailhe & Anne Solaz & Maria Letizia Tanturri & Lennart Flood, 2011. "Gender Differences in Time Use over the Life Course in France, Italy, Sweden, and the US," Feminist Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 17(3), pages 159-195.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Correa, Charles H. & Carrasco-Gutierrez, Carlos Enrique & Turra, Cássio M., 2025. "Demographic changes and intergenerational reallocations in Brazil, 2003–2018," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 30(C).
    2. Spielauer, Martin & Horvath, Thomas & Fink, Marian & Abio, Gemma & Souto, Guadalupe & Patxot, Ció & Istenič, Tanja, 2022. "Measuring the lifecycle impact of welfare state policies in the face of ageing," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 75(C), pages 1-25.
    3. Oosthuizen, Morné, 2024. "Education and South Africa’s waning demographic dividend," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 27(C).
    4. Julio López Laborda & Carmen Marín González & Jorge Onrubia & Ángel de la Fuente, 2026. "Cuentas generacionales de los miembros de los hogares (Cuentas Nacionales de Transferencia para España, 2022)," Studies on the Spanish Economy eee2026-09, FEDEA.
    5. Gemma Abio & Concepció Patxot & Elisenda Rentería & Guadalupe Souto, 2017. "Intergenerational Transfers in Spain: The Role of Education," Hacienda Pública Española / Review of Public Economics, IEF, vol. 223(4), pages 101-130, December.
    6. Marina Zannella & Alessandra De Rose, 2019. "Stability and change in family time transfers and workload inequality in Italian couples," Demographic Research, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany, vol. 40(3), pages 49-60.
    7. Marisa Bucheli & Cecilia Lara, 2018. "Revealing gender gap changes in home production and labor income in Uruguay," Documentos de Trabajo (working papers) 18-12, Instituto de Economía - IECON.
    8. Gemma Abio & Ció Patxot & Elisenda Renteria & Guadalupe Souto & Tanja IsteniÄ, 2024. "The gender gap in paid and unpaid work along the life cycle: The role of household arrangements," UB School of Economics Working Papers 2024/464, University of Barcelona School of Economics.
    9. Kotlikoff, Laurence J., 2002. "Generational policy," Handbook of Public Economics, in: A. J. Auerbach & M. Feldstein (ed.), Handbook of Public Economics, edition 1, volume 4, chapter 27, pages 1873-1932, Elsevier.
    10. Lili Vargha & Róbert Iván Gál & Michelle O. Crosby-Nagy, 2017. "Household production and consumption over the life cycle: National Time Transfer Accounts in 14 European countries," Demographic Research, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany, vol. 36(32), pages 905-944.
    11. Toussaint, Philipp & Schultis, Sebastian & Seuffert, Stefan, 2025. "Navigating demographic challenges: The impact of increasing social contribution rates on tax revenue and distribution," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 32(C).
    12. Istenič, Tanja & Vargha, Lili & Sambt, Jože, 2019. "Is there a connection between welfare regimes and inter-age reallocation systems?," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 14(C).
    13. Bernhard Hammer & Alexia Prskawetz, 2022. "Measuring private transfers between generations and gender: an application of national transfer accounts for Austria 2015," Empirica, Springer;Austrian Institute for Economic Research;Austrian Economic Association, vol. 49(3), pages 573-599, August.
    14. Ariane Pailhé & Anne Solaz & Maxime Tô, 2024. "Can Daddies Learn to Care for Babies? The Effect of A Short Paternity Leave on the Division of Childcare and Housework," Population Research and Policy Review, Springer;Southern Demographic Association (SDA), vol. 43(3), pages 1-48, June.
    15. Espino, Ilya & Hermeto, Ana & Luz, Luciana, 2020. "Gender differences in time allocation to paid and unpaid work: Evidence from Urban Guatemala, 2000-2014," MPRA Paper 106477, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    16. Krishanu Pradhan, 2019. "Analytical Framework for Fiscal Sustainability: A Review," Review of Development and Change, , vol. 24(1), pages 100-122, June.
    17. Alan J. Auerbach & Philip Oreopoulos, 2000. "The Fiscal Effect of US Immigration: A Generational-Accounting Perspective," NBER Chapters, in: Tax Policy and the Economy, Volume 14, pages 123-156, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    18. Mejía-Guevara, Iván & Fuentes, María Estela Rivero, 2024. "Intergenerational paid and unpaid labor production and consumption inequality by gender in Mexico," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 27(C).
    19. Zannella, Marina, 2015. "Reallocation of resources between generations and genders in the market and non-market economy. The case of Italy," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 5(C), pages 33-44.
    20. Hsieh, Kevin Yu-Ching & Tung, An-Chi, 2016. "Taiwan’s National Pension Program: A remedy for rapid population aging?," The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, Elsevier, vol. 8(C), pages 52-66.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    JEL classification:

    • J12 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Marriage; Marital Dissolution; Family Structure
    • J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
    • J22 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demand and Supply of Labor - - - Time Allocation and Labor Supply

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:joecag:v:32:y:2025:i:c:s2212828x25000520. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.journals.elsevier.com/the-journal-of-the-economics-of-ageing .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.