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DOCeV: A New Holistic Model for Direct Operating Cost Estimation of Electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing Aircraft

Author

Listed:
  • Müller, Felix
  • Barke, Alexander
  • Nittinger, Olof
  • Spengler, Thomas S.

Abstract

Technological advancements foster the development of novel aircraft concepts such as electric vertical take-off and landing aircraft (eVTOLs). As a result of their promised operational benefits, such as low-emission operations and travel time savings, eVTOLs have the potential to complement or substitute existing ground transportation modes. However, their market penetration predominantly depends on economically viable operation. A widely used indicator for evaluating economic performance in aviation is the Direct Operating Cost (DOC). Currently, there is only limited public documentation on methodologies for estimating DOC of eVTOLs, and existing approaches are often abstract. Therefore, this article introduces the DOCeV, a model for estimating eVTOL DOC. The model is based on a reference methodology for conventional aircraft but is modified and extended to address the specific characteristics of (future) eVTOL operations. The DOCeV enables the estimation of costs associated with ownership, insurance, crew, energy, fees, and maintenance. Additionally, an eVTOL performance analysis is conducted within the model, the annual eVTOL utilisation is estimated, and an indicative ticket pricing approach is provided. The DOCeV has been implemented in a tool and validated using an input data set developed for a regional airport shuttle case study between Munich, Germany, and Salzburg, Austria. When applying the DOCeV, the DOC estimates for shorter, regional operations align well with existing literature. Estimates for longer missions are slightly higher than those reported in the literature. Overall, the DOCeV is considered a comprehensive and promising model for estimating realistic eVTOL DOC.

Suggested Citation

  • Müller, Felix & Barke, Alexander & Nittinger, Olof & Spengler, Thomas S., 2026. "DOCeV: A New Holistic Model for Direct Operating Cost Estimation of Electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing Aircraft," Journal of Air Transport Management, Elsevier, vol. 132(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:jaitra:v:132:y:2026:i:c:s0969699725002145
    DOI: 10.1016/j.jairtraman.2025.102951
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    References listed on IDEAS

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